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THE 


FIRST   LINES 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR; 


BEING 


A  BRIEF  ABSTRACT 


OF 


THE    AUTHOR'S    LARGER    WORK 


DESIGNED   FOR   YOUNG    LEARNERS. 


BY    GOOLD    B  ROWN 


Ne  quia  igitur  tanquam  parva  f'astidiat  Grammatices  elementa.—  Quintilian. 
The  rudiments  of  every  language    must  be  given  as  a  task,  not  as  an  amuse- 
ment.— Goldsmith. 


NEW  YORK : 
SAMUEL    S      &    WILLIAM    WOOD: 

1857. 


z* 


education  libr; 


T3n!«re<1,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  vear  18f . 

R  Y     GOOLD     BROWS. 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


PREFACE. 


940 
8377 


The  following  epitome  contains  a  general  outline  of-. the 
principles  of  our  language,  as  embodied  and  illustrated  in  "  The 
Institutes  of  English  Grammar."  The  definitions  and  expla- 
nations here  given,  are  necessarily  few  and  short.  The  writer 
has  endeavoured  to  make  them  as  clear  as  possible,  and  as  co- 
pious as  his  limits  would  allow ;  but  it  is  plainly  impracticable 
to  crowd  into  the  compass  of  a  work  like  this,  all  that  is  import- 
ant ill  the  grammar  of  our  language.  Those  who  desire  a 
more  complete  elucidation  of  the  subject,  are  invited  to  examine 
the  larger  work. 

For  the  use  of  young  learners,  small  treatises  are  generally 
preferred  to  large  ones ;  because  they  are  less  expensive  to 
parents,  and  better  adapted  to  the  taste  and  capacity  of  chil- 
dren. A  small  treatise  on  Grammar,  like  a  small  map  of  the 
world,  may  serve  to  give  the  learner  a  correct  idea  of  the  more 
prominent  features  of  the  subject ;  and  to  these  his  attention 
should  at  first  be  confined  ;  for,  without  a  pretty  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  the  general  scheme,  the  particular  details  and  nice  dis- 
tinctions of  criticism  can  neither  be  understood  nor  remembered. 

The  only  successful  method  of  teaching  grammar,  is,  to  cause 
the  principal  definitions  and  rules  to  be  committed  thoroughly  to 
memory,  that  they  may  ever  afterwards  be  readily  applied.  And 
the  pupil  should  be  alternately  exercised  in  learning  small  por- 

M603269 


IV  PREFACE. 

tions  )f  his  book,  and  then  applying  them  in  parsing,  till  the 
whole  is  rendered  familiar. 

The  learner  who  shall  thus  go  through  this  little  work,  will, 
it  is  imagined,  acquire  as  good  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  as  is 
to  be  derived  from  any  of  the  abridgements  used  in  elementary 
schools.  And,  if  he  is  to  pursue  the  study  further,  he  will  then 
be  prepared  to  read  with  advantage  the  more  copious  illustra- 
tions and  notes  contained  in  the  larger  work,  and  to  enter  upon 
the  various  exercises  adapted  to  its  several  parts. 

This  work  is  in  no  respect  necessary  to  the  other,  as  it  contains 
the  same  definitions,  and  pursues  the  same  plan.  The  use  of  it 
in  the  early  stages  of  pupilage  will  preserve  a  more  expensive 
bosk  from  being  soiled  and  torn  ;  and  the  scholar's  advancement 
to  the  larger  work  may  be  expected  to  increase  his  pleasure  and 
a<  celerate  his  progress  in  the  study. 

Goold  Brovh 

New-York%  1826 


THE 

FIRST    LINES 

OF 

ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


English  Grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking  and 
vriting  the  English  language  correctly. 

It  is  divided  into  four  parts ;  namely,  Orthogra- 
phy, Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody. 

Orthography  treats  of  letters,  syllables,  separate 
words,  and  spelling. 

Etymology   treats   of  the   different   parts   of 
speech,  and  their  classes  and  modifications. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  govern- 
ment, and  arrangement,  of  words  in  sentences. 

Prosody  treats  of  punctuation,  utterance,  fig 
ures,  and  versification. 


PART    I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography  treats  of  letters,  syllables,  separate 
words}  and  spelling. 

OF  LETTERS. 

A  Letter  is  a  character  used  in  printing  or  wri- 
ting, to  represent  an  articulate  sound. 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


An  articulate  sound  is  a  sound  of  the  human 
voice,  used  in  speaking.  s 

The  letters  in  the  English  alphabet  are  twenty- 
six  ;  A  a,  Bb,  C  c,  D  d,  Be,  Ff,  G  g,  H  ft, 
/  £,  J  j,  K  k,  LI,  Mm,  N  n,  O  o,  P  p,  Q  q, 
Rr,  Ss,  Tt,  Uu,  Vv,  Ww,  X  x,  Yy,  Z  z. 

CLASSES  OF  LETTERS. 

The  letters  are  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
cowels  and  consonants. 

A  vowel  is  a  letter  which  forms  a  perfect  sound, 
when  uttered  alone. 

A  consonant  is  a  letter  which  cannot  be  per 
fcctly  uttered  till  joined  to  a  vowel. 

The  vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w, 
and  y.     All  the  other  letters  are  consonants. 

W  and  y  are  consonants  when  they  precede  a 
vowel  heard  in  the  same  syllable ;  as  in  wine,  twine, 
whine,  ye,  yet,  youth  :  in  all  other  situations,  they 
are  vowels  ;  as  in  newly,  dewy,  eyebrow. 

Observation  1.  The  consonants  are  divided  into  mutes  and  semi- 
vowels. 

Obs.  2.  A  mute  is  a  consonant  which  cannot  be  sounded  at  all 
without  a  vowel.     The  mutes  are  6,  rZ,  k,  p,  q,  t,  and  cand  g  hard 

Obs.  3.  A  semi-vowel  is  a  consonant  which  can  be  imperfectly 
sounded  without  a  vowel.  The  semi- vowels  are^  h,  j,  /,  m,  n,  r,  s,  v, 
cv,  z,  and  c  and  g  soft.  Of  these,  /,  m,  w,  and  r,*are  termed  liquids, 
on  account  of  the  fluency  of  their  sounds. 

FORMS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 

«n  the  English  language,  the  Roman  characters 
are  generally  employed  ;  sometimes  the  Italic ; 
and  occasionally  the  GDlb  ©nglisl). 

The  letters  have  severally  two  forms,  by  which 
they  are  distinguished  as  capitals  and  small  letters. 

Small  letters  constitute  the  body  of  every  work ; 
and  capitals  are  used  for  the  sake  of  eminence 
and  distinction. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  7 

RULES  FOR  THE  USE  OF  CAPITALS. 

RULE    I. — TITLES    OP    BOOKS. 

The  titles  of  books,  and  the  heads  of  their  principal  divisions, 
should  be  printed  in  capitals.  When  hooks  are  merely  mentioned, 
the  principal  words  in  their  titles  begin  with  capitals,  and  the  other 
letters  are  small ;  as,  "  Pope's  Essay  on  Man." 

RULE    II. — FIRST    WORDS. 

The  first  word  of  every  distinct  sentence  should  begin  with  a 
capital. 

RULE    III. — NAMES    OF    DEITY. 

All  names  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  capitals;  as,  God, 
Jehovah,  the  Almighty,  the  Supreme  Being. 

RULE    IV. — PROPER    NAMES. 

Titles  of  office  or  honor,  and  proper  names  of  every  description, 
should  begin  with  capitals ;  as,  Chief  Justice  Hale,  William,  Lon- 
don, the  Park,  the  Albion,  the  Thames. 

RULE    V. — OBJECTS    PERSO.VIFIED. 

The  name  of  an  object  personified,  when  it  conveys  an  idea 
strictly  individual,  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as, 

"  Come,  gentle  Spring,  ethereal  mildness,  come  " 

RULE    VI. — WORDS    DERIVED. 

Words  derived  from  proper  names  of  persons  or  places,  sho\  \ 
aegin  with  capitals ;  as,  Newtonian,  Grecian,  Roman. 

RULE    VII. — I    AND    0. 

The  words  /and  O  should  always  be  capitals 

RULE    VIII. POETRY. 

Every  line  in  poetry  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

RULE    IX. — EXAMPLES. 

The  first  word  of  an  example,  of  a  d'stinct  speech,  or  of  a  direct 
quotation,  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  "  Remember  this  max- 
Ln :  '  Know  thyself.' " — "  Virgil  says, '  Labour  conquers  all  things.' " 

RULE    X. — CHIEF    WORDS. 

Other  words  of  particular  importance,  and  such  as  denote  the 
principal  subject  of  discourse,  may  be  distinguished  by  capitals. 
Proper  names  frequently  have  capitals  throughout. 


8  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

OF  SYLLABLES  AND  WORDS. 

A  Syllable  is  one  or  more  letters  pronounced 
in  one  sound,  and  is  either  a  word  or  a  part  of 
a  word  ;  as,  a,  an,  ant. 

A  Word  is  one  or  more  syllables  spoken  or 
written  as  the  sign  of  some  idea. 

In  every  word  there  are  as  many  syllables  as 
there  are  distinct  sounds  ;  as,  gram-ma-ri-an. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable; 
a  word  of  two  syllables,  a  dissyllable  j  a  word  of 
three  syllables,  a  trissyllable  ]  and  a  word  of  four 
or  more  syllables,  a  polysyllable. 

DIPHTHONGS    AND    TRIPHTHONGS. 

A  diphthong  is  two  vowels  joined  in  one  sylla- 
ble 5  as,  ea  in  beat,  on  in  sound. 

A  proper  diphthong,  is  a  diphthong  in  which 
both  the  vowels  are  sounded  5  as,  oi  in  voice. 

An  improper  diphthong  is  a  diphthong  in  which 
only  one  of  the  vowels  is  sounded;  as,  oa  in  loaf. 

A  triphthong  is  three  vowel  *  joined  in  one  syl- 
lable ;  as,  eau  in  beau,  ieic  in  view. 

A  proper  triphthong,  is  a  triphthong  in  which 
all  the  vowels  are  sounded  5  as,  noy  in  buoy. 

An  improper  triphthong,  is  a  triphthong  in 
which  only  one  or  two  of  the  vowels  are  sounded  5 
as,  eau  in  beauty. 

Gos.  1.  The  diphthongs?  in  English  are  twenty-nine.  Some  oJ 
them,  being  variously  sounded,  may  be  either  proper  or  improper. 

Obs.  2.  The  proper  diphthongs  are  thirteen ;  ay — ia,  ie,  it) — oi, 
vu,  ow,  oy — ua,  ue,  id,  no,  uy. 

Obs.  3.  The  improper  diphthongs  are  twenty-six  ;  aa,  ae,  ai,  ao, 
au,  aw,  ay — ea,  ee,  ei,  eo,  eu,  ew,  ey — ie — oa,  oe,  oi,  oo,  on,  ow, — ua\ 
ue,  id,  uo,  uy. 

Obs.  4.  The  only  proper  triphthong  is  uoy,  given  in  the  example 
above. 

Obs.  0.  The  improper  triphthongs  are  eleven ;  awe,  aye — eau. 
eau,  eivc,  eye — ten,  ieir,  ion — oeu,owe. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  9 

SPECIES    AND    FIGURE    OF    WORDS. 

Words  are  distinguished  as  primitive  or  deriv- 
ative^ and  as  simple  or  compound.  The  former  di- 
vision is  called  their  species;  the  latter,  their  figure. 

A  primitive  word  is  one  that  is  not  formed  from 
any  simpler  word  in  the  language ;  as,  harm,greaU 
connect. 

A  derivative  word  is  one  that  is  formed  from 
some  simpler  word  in  the  language ;  as,  harmless^ 
greatly,  connected. 

A  simple  word  is  one  that  is  not  compounded  ; 
as,  watch,  man. 

A  compound  word  is  one  that  is  composed  of 
two  or  more  simple  words  j  as,  watchman,  never- 
theless, n 

Obs.  1.  Permanent  compounds  are  consolidated ;  as  bookseller, 
schoolmaster :  others  are  formed  by  the  hyphen;  as,  glass-house, 
negro-merchant. 

Obs.  2.  In  dividing  words  into  syllables,  we  are  chiefly  to  be  di- 
rected by  the  ear ;  it  may  however  be  proper  to  observe  the  follow- 
ing rules. 

I.  The  consonants  should  generally  be  joined  to  the  vowels  or 
diphthongs  which  they  modify ;  as,  ap-os-tol-i-cal. 

II.  Derivative  and  grammatical  terminations  should  genera1'-"  *>*» 
separated  from  the  radical  word ;  as,  harm-less,  great-ly,  conneci-cu. 

III.  Compounds  should  be  divided  into  the  simple  words  which 
compose  them  ;  as,  watch-man,  never-the-less. 

IV.  At  the  end  of  a  line,  a  word  may  be  divided,  if  necessary ; 
but  a  syllable  must  never  be  broken. 

OF  SPELLING. 
Spelling  is  the  art  of  expressing  words  hy  their 
proper  letters. 

Obs.  This  important  art  is  to  be  acquired  rather  by  means  of  r'.e 
spelling-book  or  dictionary,  and  by  observation  in  reading,  thar  by 
the  study  of  written  rules.  The  orthography  of  our  language  is  at- 
tended with  much  uncertainty  and  perplexity :  many  word?  are  va- 
riously spelled  by  the  best  scholars,  and  many  others  are  nor  usually 
written  according  to  the  analogy  of  similar  words.  But  30  *e  igno- 
rant o{  the  orthography  of  such  words  as  are  uniformly  spelled  and 
frequently  used,  is  justly  considered  disgraceful.  The  following 
rules  may  prevent  some  embarrassment,  anu  thus  be.  of  service  to 
the  learner. 


10  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


RULES  FOR  SPELLING. 


RULE    I. — FINAL    F,    L,    OR    S. 


M  mosyllables  ending  in  f  I,  or  s,  preceded  by  a  single  vowel 
double  the  final  consonant:  _s  staff,  mill,  pass;  except  if,  of  as 
gas,  has,  was,  yes,  is,  his,  this,  us,  thus. 


RULE    II. — OTHER    FINALS. 


Words  ending  in  any  other  consonant  than^  I,  or  s,  do  not  double 
the  final  letter  ;  except  add,  odd,  ebb,  egg.  inn,  err,  purr',  butt,  buzz, 
and  some  proper  names. 


RULE    III. — DOUBLING. 


Monosyllables,  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  when 
they  end  with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  double 
their  final  consonant  before  an  additional  syllable  that  begins  with 
a  vowel :  as,  rob,  robber  ;  permit,  permitting. 

Exception.  X  final,  being  equivalent  to  ks,  is  never  doubled 


RULE    IV. — NO    DOUBLING. 

A  final  consonant,  when  it  is  not  preceded  by  a  single  vowel, 
or  when  the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable,  should  remain  single 
oefore  an  additional  syllable :  as,  toil,  toiling  ;  visit,  visited  ;  general, 
generalize. 

Exc.  But  I  and  s  final  are  often  doubled,  (though  perhaps  im- 
p-~^.riy,)  when  the  last  syllable  is  not  accented :  as,  travel,  tra- 
velled; bias,  biassed. 

RULE   V. — FINAL    LL. 

Primitive  words  ending  in  11,  generally  reject  one  I,  betbre  Jul, 
less,  ly,  and  ness :  as,  skill,  skilful,  skilless  ;  full,  fidly,  fulness. 

Obs.. Words  ending  in  any  other  double  letter,  preserve  it  double : 
as,  blijgul,  oddly,  stiffiess,  carelessness. 

RULE    VI. — FINAL   E. 

The  final  e  of  a  primitive  word  is  generally  omitted  before  an 
additional  termination  beginning  with  a  vowel :  as,  rate,  ratable , 
force,  forcible  ;  rave,  raving. 

Exc.  Words  ending  in  ce  or  ge  retain  the  e  before  able  or  ous,  tc 
preserve  the  soft  sound  of  candg-;  as,  peace,  peaceable ;  change, 
changeable )  outrage,  outrageous. 

RULE    VII. — FINAL    E. 

The  final  e.  of  a  primitive  word  is  generally  retained  before  an 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  11 

additional  termination  beginning  with  a  consonant :  as,  pale,  pale- 
ness ;  lodge,  lodgement. 

Exc.  When  the  e  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  it  is  sometimes  omit- 
ted: as,  true,  truly  ;  awe,  awful:  and  sometimes  retained;  as,  rue, 
rueful ;  shoe,  shoeless. 

RULE    VIII. — FINAL   Y. 

The  final  y  of  a  primitive  word,  when  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
is  changed  into  i  before  an  additional  termination :  as,  merry,  mer- 
rier, merriest,  merrily,  merriment ;  pity,  pitied,  pities,  pitiest,  piti- 
less, pitiful,  pitiable. 

Exc.  Before  ing,  y  is  retained,  to  prevent  the  doubling  of  i ;  as, 
pity,  pitying.  Words  ending  in  ie,  dropping  the  e  by  rule  vi. 
change  i  into  y,  for  the  same  reason  ;  as  die,  dying. 

Obs.  When  a  vowel  precedes,  y  should  not  be  changed  ;  as,  day, 
days,  valley,  valleys ;  money,  moneys  ;  monkey,  monkeys. 

RULE    IX. — COMPOUNDS. 

Compounds  generally  retain  the  orthography  of  the  simple  words 
which  compose  them ;  as,  hereof,  wherein,  horseman,  recall,  uphill, 
shellfish. 

Exc.  In  permanent  compounds,  the  words  fidl  and  all  drop  one  I ; 
as,  hamlful,  careful,  always,  withal :  in  others  they  retain  both ;  as, 
full-eyed,  all-wise,  save-all. 

Obs.  Other  words  ending  in  11  sometimes  improperly  drop  one  /, 
when  taken  into  composition,  as  miscal,  downhil.  This  excision  is 
reprehensible,  because  it  is  contrary  to  general  analogy,  and  because 
both  letters  are  necessary  to  preserve  the  sound,  and  show  the  deri- 
vation of  the  compound.  Where  is  the  consistency  of  writing  recall, 
miscal — inthrall,  bethral — windfall,  downfal — laystall,  thumbstal — 
waterfall,  overfal — molehill,  dunghil — windmill,  twibil — clodfolL 
enrol  ? — f  See  Johnson's  Dictionary,  first  American  ed.  4to.] 

QUESTIONS  FOR  EXAMINATION. 

LESSON    I. — GENERAL    DIVISION 

What  is  English  Grammar  ? 
How  is  it  divided  ? 
Of  what  does  Orthography  treat  ? 
Of  what  does  Etymology  treat  ? 
Of  what  does  Syntax  treat  ? 
Of  what  does  Prosody  treat  ? 

QUESTIONS  ON  ORTHOGRAPHY 

LESSON   II. — LETTER8. 

Of  what  does  Orthography  treat  ? 

What  is  a  Letter  ? 

What  is  an  articulate  sound  ? 


18  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

How  many  letters  are  there  in  English  ?  and  what  are  their  names  ? 

How  are  the  letters  divided  1 

What  is  a  vowel  ? 

What  is  a  consonant  ? 

What  letters  are  vowels  ?  and  what  consonants  1 

When  are  w  and  y  consonants  ?  and  when,  vowels  ? 

LESSON    III. — CAPITALS. 

What  characters  are  employed  in  English  ? 

Has  each  letter  more  than  one  form  ? 

Where  are  small  letters  employed  ?  and  why  are  capitals  used  1 

How  many  rules  for  capitals  are  there  ?  and  what  are  their  heads  ? 

What  says  Rule  1st  of  titles  of  books?— Rule  2d  of  first  words? 
Rule  3d  of  names  of  Deity  ?  Rule  4th  of  proper  names  ?  Rule 
5th  of  objects  personified  ?  Rule  6th  of  words  derived  ?  Rule  7th 
of  land  O  ?  Rule  8th  of  poetry  ?  Rule  9th  of  examples  ?  Ruie 
10th  of  chief  words  ? 

LESSON    IV. — SYLLABLES    AND    WORDS. 

What  is  a  Syllable  ? 

What  is  a  Word  ? 

Can  the  syllables  of  a  word  be  perceived  by  the  ear  1 

What  is  a  word  of  one  syllable  called  ? 

What  is  a  word  of  two  syllables  called  ? 

What  is  a  word  of  three  syllables  called  ? 

What  is  a  word  of  four  or  more  syllables  called  1 

What  is  a  diphthong  ? 

What  is  a  proper  diphthong  ? 

What  is  an  improper  diphthong  ? 

What  is  a  triphthong  ? 

What  is  a  proper  triphthong  ? 

What  is  an  improper  triphthong  ? 

How  are  words  distinguished  as  to  species  and  figure  t 

What  is  a  primitive  word  ? 

What  is  a  derivative  word  ? 

What  is  a  simple  word  ? 

What  is  a  compound  word  ? 

LESSON    V. — SPELLING. 

What  is  spelling  1 

How  is  this  art  to  be  acquired  ? 

How  many  and  what  are  the  rules  for  spelling  ? 

What  says  Rule  1st  of  final  fil,  or  s?  Rule  2d  of  other  finals'? 
Rule  3d  of  the  doubling  of  consonants  ?  Rule  4th  of  not  doubling  7 
Rule  5th  of  final  11  ?  Rule  6th  of  final  e  ?  Rule  7th  of  final  e  1 
Rule  8th  of  final  y  7    Rule  9th  of  compounds  ? 


ETYMOLOGY.  13 

PART    II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  different  parts  of  speechv 
and  their  classes  and  modifications. 

OP  THE  PART#  OF  SPEECH. 

The  Parts  of  speech,  or  sorts  of  words,  in  Eng- 
ish,  are  ten ;  namely,  the  Article,  the  Noun,  the 
Adjective,  the  Pronoun,  the  Verb,  the  Participle, 

*he  Adverb,  the  Conjunction,  the  Preposition,  and 

»he  Interjection. 

1.    THE    ARTICLE. 

An  Article  is  a  word  placed  before  nouns,  to  limit 
their  signification :  the  articles  are  the,  and  an  or  a. 

2.   THE   NOUN. 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or 
thing,  that  can  be  known  or  mentioned :  as, 
George,  York,  man,  apple,  truth. 

3.    THE    ADJECTIVE. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun, and  generally  expresses  quality  :  as,  A  wise 
man ;  a  new  book. — You  two  are  diligent 

4.    THE    PRONOUN. 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun : 
as,  The  boy  loves  his  book  5  he  has  long  lessons, 
and  he  learns  them  well. 

5.    THE    VERB. 

A  Verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or 
to  be  acted  upon :  as,  I  am,  I  rule,  I  am  ruled  ; 
I  love,  thou  loves t,  he  loves, 

2 


14  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

6.    THE    PARTICIPLE. 

A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  par- 
ticipating the  properties  of  a  verb  and  an  adjec- 
tive 5  and  is  generally  formed  by  adding  ing,  d,  or 
ed,  to  the  verb :  thus,  from  the  verb  rule  are  formed 
three  participles,  two  simple  and  one  compound  $ 
as,  1.  ruling,  2.  ruled $£.  having  ruled. 

7.    THE    ADVERB. 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  parti- 
ciple, an  adjective,  or  an  other  adverb  ;  and  gene- 
rally expresses  time,  place,  degree,  or  manner :  as, 
They  are  now  here,  studying  very  diligently. 

8.  THE    CONJUNCTION. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words 
or  sentences  in  construction,  and  to  show  the  de- 
pendence of  the  terms  so  connected :  as,  Thou 
and  he  are  happy,  because  you  are  good. 

9.  THE    PREPOSITION. 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  some  re- 
lation of  different  things  or  thoughts  to  each  other, 
and  is  generally  placed  before  a  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun :  as,  The  paper  lies  before  me  on  the  desk. 

10.    THE    INTERJECTION. 

An  Interjection  is  a  word  that  is  uttered  merely 
to  indicate  some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the 
mind  :  as,  Oh  I  alas  I 


PARSING. 

Parsing  is  the  resolving  or  explaining  of  a  sen- 
tence according  to  the  definitions  and  rules  of 
grammar. 


ETYMOLOGY.  15 

EXAMPLES    FOR    PARSING. 

Ch  APTER  I.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

k  is  hers  required  if  the  pupil  merely  to  distinguish  and  define  the 
different  parts  of  speech.     Thus: 

EXAMPLE    PARSED. 

"  Bring  a  long  laa  ler,  and  set  it  up  against  the  tree." 
Bring  is  a  verb. 

A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  be  acted 
upon. 
A  is  an  article. 

An  article  is  a  word  placed  before  nouns,  to  limit  their 
signification. 
Long  is  an  adjective. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  and 
generally  expresses  quality. 
Ladder  is  a  noun. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that 
can  be  known  or  mentioned. 
And  is  a  conjunction. 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words  or  sentences 
in  construction,  and  to  show  the  dependence  of  the  terms 
so  connected. 
Set  is  a  verb. 

A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  be  acted 
upon. 
It  is  a  pronoun. 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun. 
Up  is  an  adverb. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  participle,  an  ad- 
jective, or  an  other  adverb ;  and  generally  expresses  time, 
place,  degree,  or  manner. 
Against  is  a  preposition. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  some  relation  of 
different  things  or  thoughts  to  each  other,  and  is  gene- 
rally placed  before  a  noun  or  a  pronoun. 
The  is  an  article. 

An  article  is  a  word  placed  before  nouns,  to  limit  their 
signification. 
Tree  is  a  noun. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that  can 
be  known  or  mentioned. 

LESSON    I. 

The  carpenter  has  a  saw,  and  a  chisel,  and  a  plane,  and  an  adze, 
and  a  gimlet,  and  a  hatchet,  and  a  hammer,  and  nails,  and  a  mallet, 

Come,  let  us  go  into  the  fields,  and  see  the  sheep,  and  the  lambs, 
.w.d  the  cows,  tutu  the  irees. 


16  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


LESSON   II. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year,  the  weather  becomes  warm  ;  the  trees 
bud,  and  put  forth  their  leaves ;  the  young  grass  springs  up  out  of 
the  ground  ;  and  the  plants  and  shrubs  appear  in  bloom ;  the  gar- 
dens and  orchards  are  perfumed  with  fragrance,  and  the  birds  sing 
in  the  groves. 

LESSON    III. 

In  summer  the  fervid  sun,  darting  his  direct  rays,  oppresses  us 
with  heat.  Then  the  waving  fields  of  grain  ripen  for  harvest,  and 
the  earlier  kinds  of  fruit  get  ripe.  (O  how  nice  ripe  fruit  is!) 
Then  the  grass  is  mown,  to  provide  food  for  the  cattle  against  win- 
ter. Men  cut  it  down  with  a  sharp  scythe  ;  and  when  it  is  dried,  it 
becomes  hay.  Quite  small  boys  can  help  to  make  hay.  They  can 
spread  the  grass  when  it  is  cut. 

LESSON   IV. 

In  autumn,  all  the  late  fruits  ripen ;  and  they  fall  to  the  ground 
if  people  do  not  pluck  them.  The  nights  are  chilled  with  frost 
The  leaves  wither,  and  the  forests  lose  their  verdure.  The  thick 
foliage  of  the  trees  now  lies  scattered  on  the  ground,  or,  caught  by 
the  hedges,  hangs  quivering  in  the  wind.  No  song  of  birds  is  heard 
in  the  leafless  grove. 

LESSON    V. 

In  winter,  the  stormy  winds  blow  keen  and  cold ;  and  there  are 
snow  and  ice.  The  snow  covers  the  ground  like  a  white  robe. 
Men  wrap  themselves  in  warm  clothes,  and  live  upon  the  food 
which  they  laid  up  in  the  time  of  harvest.  Ah !  what  will  now  be- 
come of  those  who  were  idle  in  summer,  and  thoughtless  of  the 
change  which  the  roiling  year  produces  ? 

LESSON    VI. 

Ye  summer's  heat,  and  winter's  cold ! 
By  turns  in  long  succession  roll'd, 

The  drooping  world  to  cheer : 
Praise  him  who  gave  the  sun  and  moon, 
To  lead  the  various  seasons  on, 

And  guide  the  circling  year. — Merrick. 


OF  THE  ARTICLE. 


An  Article  is  a  word  placed  before  nouns,  to 
limit  their  signification :  the  articles  are  the,  and 
an  or  a. 


ETTMOLOGY.  17 

An  and  a  are  one  and  the  same  article.  An  Is  used  whenever 
the  following  word  begins  with  a  vowel  sound  ;  as,  An  art,  an  end, 
an  heir,  an  inch,  an  ounce,  an  hour,  an  urn.  A  is  used  whenever 
the  following  word  begins  with  a  consonant  sound  ;  as,  A  man,  a 
house,  a  wonder,  a  one,  a  yew,  a  use,  a  ewer.  Thus  the  sounds  of 
w  and  y,  even  when  expressed  by  other  letters,  require  a  and  not  an 
before  them. 

The  articles  are  distinguished  as  the  definite 
and  the  indefinite. 

The  definite  article  is  the,  which  denotes 
some  particular  thing  or  things;  as,  The  boy ,  the 
oranges. 

The  indefinite  article  is  an  or  a,  which  denotes 
one  thing  of  a  kind,  but  not  any  particular  one  ; 
as,  A  boy,  an  orange. 

Obs.  A  noun  without  an  article  or  other  word  to  limit  its  significa- 
tion, is  generally  taken  in  its  widest  sense ;  as,  Man  is  endowed  with 
reason. 


OF  THE  NOUN. 


A  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or 
thing,  that  can  be  known  or  mentioned  ;  as, 
George,  York,  man,  apple,  truth. 


CLASSES. 

Nouns  are  divided  into  two  general  classes ; 
proper  and  common. 

A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  some  particular 
individual  or  people  5  as,  Adam  Boston,  the 
Hudson,  the  Romans. 

A  common  noun  is  the.n^me  of  a  sort,  kind, 
or  class  of  things  ;  as,  Beast,  bird,  fisn  insect. 

The  particular  dosses,  Gpllectivefabstract,  and  verbal,  are  usually 
included  among  common  nouns. 


18  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

A  collective  noun,  or  noun  of  multitude,  is  the  name  of  many  inch 
viduals  together;  as,  Council,  meeting,  committee,  flock. 

An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  some  particular  quality  consider 
dJ  apart  from  its  substance  ;  as,  Good)tess,  hardness,  pride,  frailty. 

A  verbal  or  participial  noun  is  the  name  of  some  action  or  state 
of  being ;  and  is  formed  from  a  verb,  like  a  participle,  but  employed 
as  a  noun ;  as,  "  The  triumphing  of  the  wicked  is  short."     Job,  xx.  5 


MODIFICATIONS. 

Nouns  have  modifications  of  four  kinds  ;  name- 
ly, Persons,  Numbers,  Genders,  and  Cases 

PERSONS. 

Persons,  in  grammar,  are  modifications  that  dis- 
tinguish the  speaker,  the  hearer,  and  the  person 
or  thing  merely  spoken  of. 

There  are  three  persons  \  the  first,  the  second, 
and  the  third. 

The  first  person  is  that  which  denotes  the 
speaker  ;  as,  "  /  Paul  have  written  it." 

The  second  person  is  that  which  denotes  the 
hearer  ;  as,  "  Robert,  who  did  this  ?" 

The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the 
person  or  thing  merely  spoken  of ;  as,  "  James 
loves  his  book." 

Obs.  1.  The  distinction  of  persons  belongs  to  nouns,  pronouns 
and  finite  verbs;  and  to  these  it  is  always  applied,  either  by  pecu 
liarity  of  form  or  construction,  or  by  inference  from  the  principles 
of  concord.  Pronouns  are  like  their  antecedents,  and  verbs  are  like 
their  subjects,  in  person. 

Obs.  2.  The  speaker  seldom  refers  to  himself  by  name,  as  the 
speaker ;  consequently,  nouns  are  rarely  used  in  the  first  person. 

Obs.  3.  When  inanimate  things  are  spoken  to,  it  is  by  a  figure  ol 
speech,  called  personification. 

NUMBERS. 

Numbers  are  modifications  that  distinguish 
unity  and  plurality. 


ETYMOLOGY.  19 

There  are  two  numbers  ;  the  singular  and  the 
plural. 

The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but 
one  ;  as,  the  boy  learns. 

The  plural  number  is  that  which  denotes  more 
than  one  ;  as,  The  boys  learn. 

The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed 
by  adding  5  or  es  to  the  singular :  as,  book,  books  ; 
box,  boxes. 

Obs.  1.  The  distinction  of  numbers  belongs  to  nouns,  pronouns, 
and  finite  verbs ;  and  to  these  it  is  always  applied,  either  by  peculi- 
arity of  form,  or  by  inference  from  the  principles  of  concord.  Pro- 
nouns are  like  their  antecedents,  and  verbs  are  like  their  subjects,  in 
number. 

Obs.  2.  When  a  singular  noun  ends  in  a  sound  which  will  unite 
with  that  of  s,  the  plural  is  generally  formed  by  adding  s  only,  and 
the  number  of  syllables  is  not  increased :  as,  pen,  pens;  grape,  grapes. 

Obs.  3.  But  when  the  sound  of  s  cannot  be  united  with  that  of  the 
primitive  word,  the  plural  adds  s  to  final  e,  and  es  to  other  termina- 
tions, and  forms  a  separate  syllable  :  as,  page,  pages;  fox,  foxes. 

Obs.  4.  Nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant,  add  es,  but 
do  not  increase  their  syllables:  as,  wo,  woes;  hero,  heroes.  Other 
nouns  in  o  add  s  only:  as, folio,  folios. 

Obs.  5.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceUed  by  a  consonant,  change  y  into 
i,  and  add  es,  without  increase  of  syllables :  as,  Jly,  flies  ;  duty,  duties. 
Other  nouns  in  y  add  s  only:  as,  day,  days ;  valley,  valleys. 

Obs.  6.  The  following  n^uns  inf  change  f  into  v,  and  add  es,  for 
the  plural ;  sheaf,  leaf,  loaf,  beef,  thief  calf,  half  elf  shelf  self,  wolf 
xoharf;  as,  sheaves,  leaves,  &c.  Life,  lives ;  knife,  knives;  wife, 
wives  ;  are  similar. 

Obs.  7.  The  greater  number  of  nouns  in/ and /e  are  regular ;  as, 
fifes,  strifes,  chiefs,  griefs,  &c. 

Obs.  8.  The  following  are  still  more  irregular :  man,  men  ;  woman, 
women;  child,  children;  brother,  brethren  \ or  brothers']  ;  foot,  feet ; 
ox,  oxen  ;  tooth,  teeth  ;  goose,  geese  ;  louse,  lice  ;  mouse,  mice  ;  die, 
dice ;  penny,  pence.     Dies,  stamps,  and  pennies,  coins,  are  regular. 

Ols.  9.  Many  foreign  nouns  retain  their  original  plural ;  as,  arca- 
num,  arcana ;  radius,  radii;  vortex,  vortices ;  axis,  axes ;  phenome- 
non, phenomena  ;  seraph,  seraphim. 

Obs.  10.  Some  nouns  have  no  plural :  as,  gold,  pride,  meekness. 

Ols.'W.  Some  nouns  have  no  singular:  as,  embers,  ides,  oats, 
scissors,  tongs,  vespers,  literati,  minutice. 

Obs.  12.  Some  are  alike  in  both  numbers :  as,  sheep,  deer,  swine, 
hose,  means,  odds,  news,  species,  series,  apparatus. 

Obs.  13.  Compounds  in  which  the  principal  word  is  put  first,  vary 
the  principal  word  to  form  the  plural,  and  the  adjunct  to  form  the  poi* 
eeisive  case :  as,  father-in-law,  fathers-in-law,  father-in-law's. 


20  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Obs.  14.  Compounds  ending  in  ful,  and  all  those  in  which  tha 
principal  word  is  put  last,  form  the  plural  in  the  same  manner  as 
other  nouns :  as,  handfuls,  spoonfuls,  mouthfuls,  fellow-servants,  man- 
servants. 

Obs.  15.  Nouns  of  multitude,  when  taken  collectively,  admit  the 
plural  form :  as,  meeting,  meetings.  But  when  taken  distributively, 
they  have  a  plural  signification,  without  the  form:  as,  "The  jury 
were  divided." 


GENDERS. 

Genders  are  modifications  that  distinguish  ob- 
jects in  regard  to  sex. 

There  are  three  genders  ;  the  masculine,  the 
feminine,  and  the  neuter. 

The  masculine  gender  is  that  which  denotes 
animals  of  the  male  kind  5  as,  man,  father,  king. 

The  feminine  gender  is  that  which  denotes  ani- 
mals of  the  female  kind ;  as,  woman,  mother,  queen. 

The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes 
things  that  are  neither  male  nor  female  5  as,  pen, 
ink,  paper. 

Obs.  1.  The  different  genders  belong  only  to  nouns  and  pronouns ; 
and  to  these  they  are  usually  applied  agreeably  to  the  order  of  na- 
ture. Pronouns  are  of  the  same  gender  as  the  nouns  for  which  they 
stand. 

Obs.  2.  Some  nouns  are  equally  applicable  to  both  sexes ;  as, 
cousin,  friend,  neighbour,  parent,  person,  servant.  The  gender  of 
these  is  usually  determined  by  the  context. 

Obs.  3.  Those  terms  which  are  equally  applicable  to  both  sexes, 
(if  they  are  not  expressly  applied  to  females,)  and  those  plurals  which 
are  known  to  include  both  sexes,  should  be  called  masculine  in  par- 
sing; for,  in  all  languages,  the  masculine  gender  is  considered  the 
most  worthy,  and  is  generally  employed  when  both  sexes  are  in- 
cluded under  one  common  term. 

Obs.  4.  The  suxes  are  distinguished  in  three  ways : 

I.  By  the  use  of  different  names :  as,  bachelor,  maid — boy,  girl — 
brother,  sister — buck,  doe — bidl,  cow — cock,  hen. 

II.  By  the  use  of  different  terminations :  as,  abbot,  abbess — hero, 
*eroine — administ rotor,  administratrix. 

III.  By  prefixing  an  attribute  of  distinction :  as,  cock-sparrow,  hen- 
sparrow — man-servant,  maid-servant — he-goat,  she-goat — male  re- 
lations, female  relations. 

Obit.  5.  The  names  of  things  without  life,  used  literally,  are  al 
ways  of  the  neuter  tfei.jer.     But  inanimate  objects  are  often  repre- 


ETYMOLOGY.  21 

sented  figuratively,  as  having  sex.  Things  remarkable  lor  power, 
greatness  or  sublimity,  are  spoken  of  as  masculine:  as,  the  sun, 
time,  death,  sleep,  fear,  anger,  winter,  war.  Things  beautiful, 
amiable,  or  prolific,  are  spoken  of  as  feminine :  as,  the  moon,  earth, 
nature,  fortune,  knowledge,  hope,  spring,  peace. 

Obs.  6.  Nouns  of  multitude  when  they  convey  the  idea  of  unity, 
or  take  the  plural  form,  are  of  the  neuter  gender;  but  when  they 
convey  the  idea  of  plurality  without  the  form,  they  follow  the  gen- 
der of  the  individuals  that  compose  the  assemblage. 

Obs.  7.  Creatures  whose  sex  is  unknown,  or  unnecessary  to  be 
regarded,  are  generally  spoken  of  as  neuter  :  as,  "  He  fired  at  the 
deer,  and  wounded  i7." — "  If  a  man  shall  steal  an  ox  or  a  sheep  and 
kill  it  or  sell  it,"  &c.  Exod.  xxii.  1. 

CASES. 

Cases  are  modifications  that  distinguish  the  re- 
lations of  nouns  and  pronouns  to  other  words. 

There  are  three  cases  ;  the  nominative,  the 
pot  sessive,  and  the  objective. 

The  nominative  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  which  denotes  the  subject  of  a 
verb  :  as,  The  boy  runs  ;  J  run. 

The  possessive  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  which  denotes  the  relation  of 
property  :  as,  The  boy's  hat  ;  my  hat. 

The  objective  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  which  denotes  the  object  of  a 
verb,  participle,  or  preposition  :  as,  I  know  the 
boy )  he  knows  me. 

Obs.  1.  The  cases  belong  only  to  nouns  and  pronouns.  Pronouns 
are  not  necessarily  like  their  antecedents,  in  case. 

Obs.  2.  The  nominative  and  the  objective  of  nouns  are  always 
alike,  being  distinguishable  from  ench  other  only  by  their  place  in 
a  sentence,  or  their  simple  dependence  according  to  the  sense. 

Obs.  3.  The  subject  of  a  verb  is  that  which  answers  to  who  or 
what  before  it;  as,  "  The  boy  runs." — JVJw  runs?  The  boy.  Boy  is 
therefore  here  in  the  nominative  case. 

Obs.  4.  The  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition,  is  that 
which  answers  to  whom  or  what  after  it ;  as,  "I  know  the  boy." — I 
know  whom?  The  boy.     Boy  is  therefore  here  in  the  objective  case. 

Obs.  5.  The  possessive  case  of  nouns  is  formed,  in  the  singular 
number,  by  adding  to  the  nominative  s  preceded  by  an  apostrophe ; 
and,  in  the  plural,  when  the  nominative  ends  in  s,  by  adding  an  apos- 
trophe only .  as,  boys  botfs,  boys1. 


22 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS. 

The  declension  of  a  noun  is  a  regular  arrange- 
ment of  its  numbers  and  cases.     Thus : 


EXAMPLE    I.- 

— FRIEND. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom. 

friend, 

Nom. 

friends, 

Poss. 

friend's, 

Poss. 

friends7, 

Obj. 

friend ; 

Obj. 

friends. 

EXAMPLE    II. — MAN. 

Nom. 

man, 

Nom. 

men, 

Poss. 

man's, 

Poss. 

men's, 

Obj. 

man ; 

Obj. 

men. 

EXAMPLE    III. — FOX. 

Nom. 

fox, 

Nom. 

foxes, 

Poss. 

fox's, 

Poss. 

foxes', 

Obj. 

fox ; 

Obj. 

foxes. 

EXAMPLE    IV. — FLY. 

Nom. 

fly, 

Nom. 

flies, 

Poss. 

fly's, 

Poss. 

flies', 

Obj. 

fly; 

Obj. 

flies 

EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 

CHAPTER  II.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 
h  is  here  required  of  the  pupil — to  distinguish  and  define  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  speech,  and  the  classes  and  modifications  of  the  ar- 
ticles and  nouns.     Thus : 

EXAMPLE    PARSED. 

"  The  horse  runs  swiftly." 
The  is  the  definite  article. 

1.  An  article  is  a  word  placed  before  nouns,  to  limit  their 

signification. 

2.  The  definite  article  is  the,  which  denotes  some  particular 

thing  or  things. 
Florse,  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  mas- 
culine gender,  and  nominative  case. 

1.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that 

can  be  known  or  mentioned. 

2.  A  common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  sort,  kind,  or  class  of 

things. 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or 

thing  merely  spoken  of. 

4.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 

6.  The  masculine  gender  is  that  which  denotes  animals  of 
the  male  kind. 


BTYM&LOGY.  23 

6.  The  nominative  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or 
pronoun,  which  denotes  the  subject  of  a  verb. 
ttuiis  is  a  verb. 

A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  be  acted 
upon. 
Swiftly  is  an  adverb 

An  adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  participle;  an  ad- 
jective, or  an  other  adverb;  and  generally  expresses 
time,  place,  degree,  or  manner. 

LESSON   i. 

The  contented  mind  spreads  ease  and  cheerfulness  around  t. 
The  school  of  experience  teaches  many  useful  lessons. 
In  the  path  of  life,  no  one  is  constantly  regaled  with  flowers. 
Food,  clothing,  and  credit,  are  the  rewards  of  industry. 

LESSON   II. 

He  that  lies  abed  all  a  summer's  morning,  loses  the  chief  plea- 
sures of  the  day :  he  that  gives  up  his  youth  to  indolence,  undergoes 
a  loss  of"  a  like  kind. 

We  should  not  destroy  an  insect,  or  quarrel  with  a  dog,  without 
a  reason  sufficient  to  vindicate  us  through  all  the  courts  of  morality 

LESSON    III. 

A  man  of  integrity  will  never  listen  to  any  reason  against  con- 
science. 

It  is  an  empty  joy,  to  appear  better  than  you  are ;  but  a  great 
bieesing,  to  be  what  you  ought  to  be. 

Take  counsel  of  the  oracle  in  thine  own  heart,  for  there  is  not  f 
more  faithful  monitor,  than  that  which  speaks  in  secret  mere. 

LESSON    IV. 

Pleasure's  call  attention  wins, 

Hear  it  often  as  we  may ; 
New  as  ever  seem  our  sins, 

Though  committed  every  day. 
Oh !  then,  ere  the  turf  or  tomb 

Cover  us  from  every  eye, 
Spirit  of  instruction  !  come, 

Make  as  learn  that  we  must  die. — Cowper 


24  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

OF  THE  ADJECTIVE. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun, and  generally  expresses  quality  :  as,  A  wise 
man  ;  a  new  book. — You  two  are  diligent 

CLASSES. 
Adjectives   may  be    divided  into    six  classes  5 
namely,  common,  proper,  numeral, pronominal, 
participial,  and  compound. 

I.  A  common  adjective  is  any  ordinary  epithet, 
or  adjective  denoting  quality  or  situation  ;  as, 
Good,  bad,  peaceful,  warlike,  eastern,  western, 
outer,  inner. 

II.  A  proper  adjective  is  one  that  is  formed  from 
a  proper  name  ;  as,  American,  English,  Platonic. 

III.  A  numeral  adjective  is  one  that  expresses 
a  definite  number ;  as,  One,  two,  three,  four,  S?c. 

IV.  ^pronominal  adjective  is  a  definitive  word 
which  may  either  accompany  its  noun,  or  repre- 
sent it  understood  ;  as,  "  All  [men]  join  to  guard 
what  each  [man]  desires  to  gain." — Pope. 

V.  A  participial  adjective  is  one  that  has  the 
form  of  a  participle,  but  differs  from  it  by  reject- 
ing the  idea  of  time  5  as,  An  amusing  story. 

VI.  A  compound  adjective  is  one  that  consists 
of  two  or  more  words  joined  by  a  hyphen ;  as, 
Nut-brown,  laughter-loving,  four-footed. 

Obs.  Numeral  adjectives  are  of  three  kinds :  namely, 

1.  Cardinal ;  as,  One,  two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  seven,  &c. 

2.  Ordinal ;  as,  First,  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  &c. 

3.  Multiplicative  ;  as,  Single  or  alone,  double  or  twofold,  triple  or 
threefold,  quadruple  or  fourfold,  &c. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Adjectives  have,  commonly,  no  modifications 
but  comparison. 

Comparison  is  a  variation  of  the  adjective,  to 
express  quality  in  different  degrees  5  as,  hard, 
harder,  hardest. 


ETYMOLOGY.  26 

There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison  5  the 
positive,  the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 

The  positive  degree  is  that  which  is  expressed  by 
the  adjective  in  its  simple  form ;  as,  hard,  soft,good. 

The  comparative  degree  is  that  which  exceeds 
the  positive  ;  as,  harder,  softer,  better. 

The  superlative  degree  is  that  which  is  not 
exceeded  ;  as,  hardest,  softest,  best. 

Those  adjectives  whose  signification  does  not 
admit  of  different  degrees,  cannot  be  compared  ; 
as,  two,  second,  all,  total,  immortal,  infinite. 

Those  adjectives  which  may  be  varied  in  sense, 
but  not  in  form,  are  compared  by  means  of  ad- 
verbs ;  as,  skilful,  more  skilful,  most  skilful, — skil- 
ful, less  skilful,  least  skilful. 

Adjectives  are  regularly  compared,  when  the 
comparative  degree  is  expressed  by  adding  er, 
and  the  superlative  by  adding  est,  to  them  ;  as, 

Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative. 

great,  greater,  greatest. 

*wide,  wider,  widest, 

hot,  hotter,  hottest. 

The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregu- 
larly :  good,  better,  best ,  bad  or  ill,  worse,  worst  ] 
little,  less,  least  j  much^  more,  most  $  many, 
more,  most ;  far,  farther,  farthest  5  late,  later, 
or  latter,  latest  or  last. 

Obs.  1.  As  the  simple  form  of  the  adjective  does  not  necessarily 
imply  comparison,  and  as  many  adjectives  admit  no  other,  some 
think  it  is  not  requisite  in  parsing,  to  mention  the  degree,  unless  it 
be  the  comparative  or  the  superlative. 

Obs.  2.  The  method  of  comparison  by  er  and  est,  is  chiefly  appli- 
cable to  monosyllables,  and  to  dissyllables  ending  in  y  or  mute  e. 

Obs.  3.  The  different  degrees  of  a  quality  may  also  be  expressed, 
with  precisely  the  same  import,  by  prefixing  to  the  adjective,  the  ad- 
verbs more  and  most ;  as,  wise,  more  wise,  most  wise  ;  famous,  more 
famous,  most  famous  ;  amiable,  more  amiable,  most  amiable. 

Obs.  4.  Diminution  of  quality  is  expressed,  in  like  manner,  by  the 
adverbs  less  and  least ;  as  wise,  less  wise,  least  wise  ;  famouSy  less 
famous,  least  famous.  

'  See  Rule*  for  Spelling,  III.  and  VI. 
3 


26  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Obs.  5.  The  prefixing  of  an  adverb  can  hardly  be  called  a  varia- 
tion of  the  adjective.  The  words  may  with  more  propriety  be  parsed 
separately,  the  degree  being  ascribed  to  the  adverb. 

Obs.  6.  Most  adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable,  must  be  com- 
pared by  means  of  the  adverbs ;  because  they  do  not  admit  a  change 
of  termination :  thus,  we  may  say,  virtuous,  more  virtuous,  most  vir- 
tuous ;  but  not  virtuous,  virtuouser,  virtuousest. 

Obs.  7.  Common  adjectives  are  more  numerous  than  all  the  other 
classes  put  together.  Very  many  of  these,  and  a  few  pronominals 
and  participials,  may  be  compared;  but  adjectives  formed  from 
proper  names,  all  the  numerals,  and  most  of  the  compounds,  are  in 
no  way  susceptible  of  comparison. 

Obs.  8.  Noun3  are  often  used  as  adjectives ;  as,  An  iron  bar — An 
evening  school — A  mahogany  chair — A  south-sea  dream.  These 
also  are  incapable  of  comparison. 

Obs.  9.  The  numerals  are  often  used  as  nouns ;  and,  as  such,  are 
regularly  declined :  as,  Such  a  one — One's  own  self— The  little  ones 
— By  tens — For  twenty* s  sake. 

Obs.  1 0.  Comparatives,  and  the  word  other,  are  sometimes  also 
employed  as  nouns,  and  have  the  regular  declension ;  as,  Our  supe- 
riors— His  betters — The  elder's  advice — An*  other's  wo — Let  others 
do  as  they  will.     But,  as  adjectives,  these  words  are  invariable. 

Obs.  11.  Pronominal  adjectives,  when  their  nouns  are  expressed, 
simply  relate  to  them,  and  have  no  modifications ;  except  this  and 
that,  which  form  the  plural  these  and  those  ;  and  much,  many,  and  a 
few  others,  which  are  compared. 

Obs.  12.  Pronominal  adjectives,  when  their  nouns  are  not  ex- 
pressed, may  be  parsed  as  representing  them  in  person,  number, 
gender,  and  case. 

Obs.  13.  The  following  are  the  principal  pronominal  adjectives : 
All,  any,  both,  each,  either,  every ,  few,  former,  first,  latter,  last,  many, 
neither,  none,  one,  other,  sam,e,  some,  such,  this,  that,  which,  what. 
Which  and  what,  when  they  are  not  prefixed  to  nouns,  are  for  the 
most  part,  relative  or  interrogative  pronouns. 


EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 

CHAPTER  III.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

It  is  here  required  of  the  pupil — to  distinguish  and  define  the  different 
parts  of  speech,  and  the  classes  and  modifications  of  the  articles, 
nouns,  and  adjectives.    Thus : 

EXAMPLE    PAR8ED. 

'  Take  better  care." 

*  There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for  joining  an  and  other.  An  here  excludes  any 
other  article;  ard  analogy  and  consistency  require  that  the  words  be  separated.  Their 
union  has  led  sometimes  to  au  improper  repetition  of  the  article  ;  as,  "  Mother  such 
a  man" — for  "An  other  such  r.ian." 


ETYMOLOGY.  27 

Take  is  a  verb. 

A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  be  acted  \ipon. 
Better  is  a  common  adjective,  of  the  comparative  degree,  compared 
irregularly,  good,  better,  best. 

1.  An  adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  and 

generally  expresses  quality. 

2.  A  common  adjective  is  any  ordinary  epithet,  or  adjective 

denoting  quality  or  situation. 

3.  The  comparative  degree  is  that  which  exceeds  the  positive. 
Care  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 

gender,  and  objective  case. 

1.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing,  that  can 

be  known  or  mentioned. 

2.  A  common  noun  is  the  name  of  a  sort,  kind,  or  class  of 

things. 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing 

merely  spoken  of. 

4.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 

5.  The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  things  that  are 

neither  male  nor  female. 

6.  The  objective  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pro- 

noun, which  denotes  the  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or 
preposition. 

LESSON    I. 

Ha !  what  is  there  amongst  the  bushes.  ?  1  can  see  only  its  eyes. 
It  has  very  large  full  eyes.  It  is  a  hare.  The  hare  is  very  innocent 
and  gentle.  In  this  country,  it  is  generally  brown ;  but,  in  countries 
which  are  very  cold,  it  turns  white  as  snow.  It  has  a  short  bushy 
tail ;  its  lip  is  parted  and  very  hairy;  and  it  always  moves  its  lips. 

LESSON    II. 

The  hare  feeds  upon  herbs  and  roots,  and  the  bark  of  young  trees ; 
and  sometimes  it  will  steal  into  the  gardens  to  eat  pinks  and  pars- 
ley :  and  it  loves  to  play  and  skip  about  by  moonlight,  and  to  bite 
the  tender  blades  of  grass,  when  the  dew  is  upon  them ;  but,  in  the 
daytime,  it  loves  to  sleep. 

lesson  in. 
The  hare  sleeps  with  its  eyes  open,  because  it  is  very  fearful  ana 
.imid ;  and  when  it  hears  the  least  noise  it  starts,  and  pricks  up  'ts 
.ong  ears.  If  it  hears  a  dog  coming,  it^runs  away  very  swifty, 
stretching  its  long  legs,  and  soon  leaves  him  far  behind.  But  a  dog 
is  stronger  than  a  hare,  and  he  can  run  to  a  much  greater  distance 
before  he  grows  tired. 

LESSON    17. 

The  heart  is  hard  in  nature,  and  unfit 

For  human  fellowship,  as  being  void 

Of  sympathy,  and  therefore  dead  alike 

To  love  and  friendship  both,  that  is  not  pleas'd 

With  sight  of  animals  enjoying  life, 

Nor  feels  their  happiness  augment  his  own. — Cowper. 

1 


28  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

OF  THE  PRONOUN. 
A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun  : 
as,  The  boy  loves  his  book  \  he  has  long  lessons, 
and  he  learns  them  well. 

Obs.  1.  The  word  for  which  a  pronoun  stands,  is  called  its  ante- 
cedent, because  it  usually  precedes  the  pronoun. 

Obs.  2.  Pronouns  often  stand  for  persons  or  things  not  named ; 
the  antecedent  being  understood. 

Obs.  3.  A^ronoun  with  which  a  question  is  asked,  stands  for 
some  person  or  thing  unknown  to  the  speaker,  apd  may  be  said  to 
have  no  antecedent ;  as,  "  What  lies  there  ?"  Ans.  "  A  man  asleep." 

Obs.  4.  One  pronoun  may  stand  as  the  immediate  antecedent  to 
an  other ;  as,  "  Blessed  are  they  that  mourn." 
CLASSES. 

Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes ;  per- 
sonal, relative  and  interrogative.  - 

I.  A  personal  pronoun,  is  a  pronoun  that 
shows  by  its  form  of  what  person  it  is. 

The  simple  personal  pronouns  are  five  :  namely, 
1,  of  the  first  person  ;  thou,  of  the  second  person  ; 
he,  she,  and  it  of  the  third  person. 

The    compound    personal  pronouns  are    also 
five  ;  namely,  myself,  of  the  first  person  $  thyself, 
of  the  second  person  5  himself,  herself,  and  // 
self,  of  the  third  person.  v 

II.  A  relative  pronoun,  is  a  pronoun  that  rep- 
resents an  antecedent  word  or  phrase,  and  con- 
nects different  clauses  of  a  sentence. 

The  relalrbe  pronouns  are.  who,  which,  what, 
and  that  ;  ana  the  compounds  whoever  or  whoso- 
ever, whichever  or  whichsoever,  whatever  or 
whatsoever.  * 

What  is  a  kind  of  double  relative,  equivalent  to 
that  which,  ox  those  which]  and  is  to  be  parsed 
first  as  antecedent,  and  then  as  relative. 

III.  An  interrogative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun 
with  which  a  question  is  asked. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are,  who,  which, 
and  what  ]  being  the  same  in  form  as  relatives. 

A|    Obs.  1.    FfTw  is  usually  applied  to  persons  only ;  which,  though 


ETYMOLOGY.  29 

formerly  applied  to  persons,  is  now  confined  to  animals  and  inanimate 
things ;  what  (as  a  mere  pronoun)  is  applied  to  things  only ;  that  ia 
applied  indifferently  to  persons,  animals,  or  things. 

Obs.  2.  The  pronoun  what  has  a  twofold  relation,  and  is  often  used 
(by  ellipsis  of  the  noun)  both  as  antecedent  and  relative,  being  equiv- 
alent to  that  which,  or  the  thing  which.  In  this  double  relation,  what 
represents  two  cases  at  the  same  time ;  as,  "  He  is  ashamed  of  what 
he  has  done ;"  that  is,  of  that  which  he  has  done. 

Obs.  3.  What  is  sometimes  used  both  as  an  adjective  and  a  relative 
at  the  same  time,  and  is  placetl  before  the  noun  which  it  represents ; 
as,  "  Wlwt  money  we  had,  was  taken  away ;"  that  is,  All  the  money 
that  we  had,  &c. — "  What  man  but  enters,  dies:"  that  is,  Any  man 
who,  &c. — "  What  god  but  enters  yon  forbidden  field." — Pope.  In- 
deed, it  does  not  admit  of  being  construed  after  a  noun,  as  a  simple 
relative.  The  compound  whatever  or  whatsoever  has  the  same  pe- 
culiarities of  construction ;  as,  "  We  will  certainly  do  whatsoever 
thing  goeth  forth  out  of  our  own  mouth." — Jer.  xliv.  W. 

Obs.  4.  Who,  which,  and  what,  when  the  affix  ever  or  soever  is  add- 
ed, have  an  unlimited  signification ;  and,  as  some  general  term,  such 
as  any  person  or  any  thing  is  implied  in  the  antecedent,  they  are 
commonly  followed  by  two  verbs :  as,  "  Whoever  attends  will  im 
prove ;"  thai  is,  Any  person  who  attends  will  improve. 

Obs.  5.  That  is  a  relative  pronoun,  when  it  is  equivalent  to  who 
or  which  ;  as,  "  The  days  t/iat  [which J  are  past,  are  gone  forever." 
It  is  a  definitive  or  pronominal  adjective,  when  it  relates  to  a  noun 
expressed  or  understood ;  as,  "  That  book  is  new."  In  other  cases, 
it  is  a  conjunction;  as,  "  Live  well,  that  you  may  die  well." 

Obs.  6.  The  word  as,  though  usually  a  conjunction  or  an  adverb, 
has  sometimes  the  construction  of  a  relative  pronoun ;  as,  "  The 
Lord  added  to  the  church  daily  such  [persons]  as  should  be  saved." 
Acts  ii.  47. 

Obs.  7.  Whether  was  formerly  used  as  an  interrogative  pronoun, 
referring  to  one  of  two  things ;  as,  "  Whether  is  greater,  the  gold  or 
the  temple  V—Mat.  xxiii.  17. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Pronouns  have  the  same  modifications  as  nouns ; 
namely,  Persons,  Numbers,  Genders,  and  Cases. 

Obs.  1.  In  the  personal  pronouns,  most  of  these  properties  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  words  themselves  ;  in  the  relative  and  the  inter- 
rogative pronouns,  they  are  ascertained  chiefly  by  the  antecedent 
and  the  verb. 

Obs.  2.  "  The  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons,  are  both 
masculine  and  feminine;  that  is,  of  the  same  gender  as  the  person 
or  persons  they  represent." — Levizac.  The  speaker  and  the  hearer, 
being  present  to  each  other,  of  course  know  the  sex  to  which  they 
respectively  belong;  and,  whenever  they  appear  in  narrative,  w« 
aro  told  who  they  are. 

3* 


30  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Obs.  3.  Murray  and  some  others  deny  the  first  person  of  nouns^ 
and  the  gender  or  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons;  and  at 
the  same  time  teach  that  "  Pronouns  must  agree  with  their  nouns, 
in  person,  number,  and  gender."  Now,  no  two  words  can  agree  in 
any  property  which  belongs  not  to  both  ! 

DECLENSION  OF  PRONOUNS. 

The  declension  of  a  pronoun  is  a  regular  ar- 
rangement of  its  numbers  and  cases. 

The  personal  pronouns  are  thus  declined : 

I,  of  the  first  person,  any  gender. 

Sing.  Norn.  I,  Plur.  Norn,  we, 

Poss.  my,  or  mine,  Poss.   our,  or  ours, 

Obj.   me ;  Obj.     us. 

Thou,  of  the  second  person,  any  gender. 
Sing.  Nom.  thou,  Plur.  Nom.  ye,  or  you, 

Poss.  thy,  or  thine,  Poss.  your,  or  yours, 

Obj.     thee ;  Obj.     you. 

He,  of  the  third  person,  masculine  gender. 
Sing.  Nom.  he,  Plur.  Nom.  they, 

Pess.  his,  Poss.  their,  or  theirs 

Obj.   him ;  Obj.    them. 

She,  of  the  third  person,  feminine  gender. 
Sing.  Nom.  she,  Plur.  Nom.  they, 

Poss.  her,  or  hers,  Poss.  their,  or  theirs, 

Obj.  her ;  Obj.    them. 

It,  of  the  third  person,  neuter  gender 
Sing.  Nom.  it,  Plur.  Nom.  they, 

Poss.  its,  Poss.  their,  or  theirs, 

Obj.    it;  Obj.    them. 

The  word  self  added  to  the  personal  pronouns,  forms  a  class  of 
compound  personal  pronouns,  that  are  used  when  an  action  reverts 
upon  the  agent,  and  also  when  some  persons  are  to  be  distinguished 
from  others ;  as,  sing,  myself  plur.  ourselves ;  sing,  thyself,  plur. 
yourselves;  sing,  himself,  herself,  itself,  plur.  themselves.  They  ail 
want  the  possessive  case,  and  are  alike  in  the  nominative  and  ob- 
jective. 

The  relative  and  the  interrogative  pronouns  are 
thus  declined: 


ETYMOLOGY.  31 

Who,  applied  only  to  j)ersons. 
Sing.  Norn,  who,  Plur.  Nom.  who, 

Poss.  whose,  Poss.  whose, 

Obj.    whom;  Obj.     whom. 

Which,  applied  to  animals  and  things. 

Sing.  Nom.  which,  Plur.  Nom.  which, 

Poss.  * Poss.  

Obj.     which;  Obj.    which. 

What,  generally  applied  to  things. 

Sing.  Nom.  what,  Plur.  Nom.  what, 

Poss.   Poss. 

Obj.    what;  Obj.    what. 

That,  applied  to  persons,  animals,  and  things. 

Sing.  Nom.  that,  Piur.  Nom.  that, 

Poss Poss. 

Obj.    that;  Obj.     that. 

The  compound  relative  pronouns  whoever  or  whosoever,  whichever 
■>r  whichsoever,  and  whatever  or  wJuitsoever,  are  declined  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  simples  wlw,  which,  what. 


EXAMPLES    FOR    PARSING. 


CHAPTER  IV.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

k  is  here  required  of  the  pupil — to  distinguish  and  define  the  different 
parts  of  speech,  and  the  classes  and  modifications  of  the  articles, 
nouns,  adjectives,  and  pronouns.     Thus: 

EXAMPLE    PARSED. 

u  She  purchased  it." 

She  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
feminine  gender,  and  nominative  case. 

1.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun. 

2.  A  personal  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  shows,  by  its  form. 

of  what  person  it  is. 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing 

merely  spoken  of. 

•  Whose  is  sometime*  "ased  as  the  possessive  case  of  which ;  as,  "  A  religion 
•rigin  is  diviie." — Blair. 


32  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

4.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denot&>  but  one. 

5.  The  feminine  gender  is  that  which  denotes  animals  of  the 

female  kind. 

6.  The  nominative  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or 

pronoun,  which  denotes  the  subject  of  a  verb. 

Purchased  is  a  verb. 

A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  be  acted 
upon. 

It  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter 
gender,  and  objective  case. 

1.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun. 

2.  A  personal  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  shows,  by  its  form, 

of  what  person  it  is. 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing 

merely  spoken  of. 

4.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 

5.  The  neuter  gender  is  that  which  denotes  things  that  are 

neither  male  nor  female. 

6.  The  objective  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pro- 

noun, which  denotes  the  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or 
preposition. 

LESSON    I. 

Frank  and  Robert  were  two  little  boys  about  eight  years  old. 
Fiank  was  a  good  boy ;  and  whenever  he  did  any  thing  wrong,  he 
always  told  his  father  and  mother  of  it ;  and  when  any  body  asked 
him  about  any  thing  which  he  had  done  or  said,  he  always  told  the 
truth,  so  that  every  body  who  knew  him  believed  him. 

LESSON    II. 

But  nobody  who  knew  his  brother  Robert,  believed  a  word  which 
he  said,  because  he  used  to  tell  lies.  Whenever  he  did  any  thing 
wrong,  he  never  ran  to  his  father  and  mother  to  tell  them  of  it,  but 
when  they  asked  him  about  it,  he  denied  it,  and  said  he  had  not 
done  the  tilings  which  he  had  done. 

LESSON    III. 

The  reason  that  Robert  told  lies,  was  because  he  was  afraid  of 
being  punished  for  his  faults  if  he  confessed  them.  For  he  was  a 
coward,  and  he  could  not  bear  the  least  pain.  But  Frank  was  a 
brave  boy,  and  could  bear  to  be  punished  for  little  faults :  his  mother 
never  punished  him  so  much  for  such  little  faults,  as  she  did  Roben 
for  the  lies  which  he  told,  and  which  she  found  out  afterwards. — M 
Edgeworth. 


ETYMOLOGY.  '*3 

LESSON   IV. 

Oh  !  'tis  a  lovely  thing  for  youth 

To  walk  betimes  ;n  wisdom's  way, 
To  fear  a  lie,  to  speak  the  truth, 

That  we  may  trust  to  ail  they  say. 

But  liars  we  can  never  trust, 

Tho'  they  should  speak  the  thing  that's  true  j 
And  he  that  does  one  fault  at  first, 

And  lies  to  liide  it,  makes  it  two. —  Watts. 


OF  THE   VERB. 


A  Verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or 
to  be  acted  upon  :  as,  I  am,  I  rule }  I  am  ruled, 

CLASSES. 

Verbs  are  divided,  with  respect  to  their  form, 
into  two  classes  ;  regular  and  irregular. 

I.  A  regular  verb  is  a  verb  that  forms  the  pre- 
terit and  the  perfect  participle  by  assuming  d  or 
ed  ;  as,  love,  loved,  loving,  loved. 

II.  An  irregular  verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not 
form  the  preterit  and  the  perfect  participle  by  as- 
suming d  or  ed  ;  as,  see,  saw,  seeing,  seen. 

Obs.  Regular  verbs  form  their  preterit  and  perfect  participle  by 
adding  d  to  final  e,  and  ed  to  all  other  terminations.  The  verb 
hear,  heard,  hearing,  heard,  adds  d  to  r,  and  is  therefore  irregular. 

Verbs  are  divided,  with  respect  to  their  significa- 
tion, into  four  classes  5  active-transitive,  active* 
intransitive,  passive  and  neuter. 

I.  An  active-transitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  ex* 
presses  an  action  which  has  some  person  or  thing 
for  its  object ;  as,  "  Cain  slew  Abel? 

II.  An  active-intransitive  verb  is  a  verb  that 
expresses  an  action  which  has  no  person  or  thing 
for  its  object ;  as,  "  John  icalks." 


34  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 

• 

III.  A  passive  verb  is  a  verb  that  represents 
its  subject,  or  nominative,  as  being  acted  upon  5 
as,  u  I  am  compelled." 

IV.  A  neuter  verb  is  a  verb  that  expresses  nei- 
ther action  nor  passion,  but  simply  being,  or  a 
state  of  being  5  as,  "  Thou  art — He  sleeps." 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Verbs  have  modifications  of  four  kinds ;  namely, 
Moods,  Tenses,,  Persons,  and  Numbers. 
MOODS. 

Moods  are  different  forms  of  the  verb,  each  of 
which  expresses  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  in 
some  particular  manner. 

There  are  five  moods  ;  the  Infinitive,  the  In- 
dicative,  the  1  %otential,  the  Subjunctive,  and  the 
Imperative. 

The  Infinitive  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb, 
which  expresses  the  being,  action,  or  passion,*in 
an  unlimited  manner,  and  without  person  or  num- 
ber ;  as,  To  read,  to  speak. 

The  Indicative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb, 
which  simply  indicates,  or  declares  a  thing ;  as,  I 
write,  you  know :  or  asks  a  question  5  as,  Do  you 
know  ? 

The  Potential  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb, 
which  expresses  the  power,  liberty,  possibility,  or 
necessity,  of  being,  action,  or  passion,:  as,  I  can 
read  j  we  must  go. 

The  Subjunctive  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb, 
which  represents  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  as 
conditional,  doubtful,  or  contingent  ;  as,  ^  If  thou 
go,  see  that  thou  offend  not." 

The  Imperative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb, 
which  is  used  in  commanding,  exhorting,  entreat- 
ing, or  permitting  $  as, "  DcparVthoxx? — "  Be  com* 
fortedP — "  Forgive  me."^"  Go  in  peace." 


ETYMOLOGY.  35 

TENSES. 

Tenses  are  those  modifications  of  the  verb, 
which  distinguish  time. 

There  are  six  tenses ;  the  Present,  the  Imper- 
fect, the  Perfect,  the  Pluperfeet,  the  First- 
future,  and  the  Second-future. 

The  Present  tense  is*  that  which  expresses 
what  now  exists  or  is  taking  place  5  as,  "  I  hear 
a  noise  ;  somebody  is  coming." 

The  Imperfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses 
what  took  place,  within  some  period  of  time  fully 
past  5  as,  "  We  saw  him  last  week ;  I  admired 
his  behaviour." 

The  Perfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what 
has  taken  place,  within  some  period  of  time  not 
yet  fully  past  5  as,  "  I  have  seen  him  to-day." 

The  Pluperfect  tense  is  that  which  expresses 
what  had  taken  place,  at  some  past  time  men- 
tioned 5  as,  "  I  had  seen  him,  when  I  met  you." 

The  First-future  tense  is  that  which  expresses 
what  will  take  place  hereafter  ;  as,  ft  I  shall  see 
him  again." 

The  Second-future  tense  is  that  which  ex- 
presses what  will  have  taken  place,  at  some  future 
time  mentioned  ;  as,  "  I  shall  have  seen  him  by 
to-morrow  noon." 

PERSONS  AND  NUMBERS. 

The  Person  and  Number  of  a  verb  are  those 
modifications  in  which  it  agrees  with  its  subject 
or  nominative. 

In  each  number,  there  are  three  persons ;  and 
in  each  person,  two  numbers :  thus, 


Singular. 

Plural. 

lstper.    I           love, 

1st  per.  We     love, 

2d:  per.     Thou  lovest, 

2d   per.  You   love. 

3d  per      He       loves ; 

... 

3d   per.  They  love, 

36  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Obs.  1.  Thus  the  verb  in  some  of  its  parts,  varies  its  termination 
to  distinguish,  or  agree  with,  the  different  persons  and  numbers. 
The  change  is,  however,  principally  confined  to  the  second  and  third 
persons  singular  of  the  present  tense  of  the  indicative  mood,  and  to 
the  auxiliaries  hast  and  lias  of  the  perfect.  In  the  ancient  biblical 
style,  now  used  only  on  solemn  occasions,  the  second  person  singu- 
lar is  distinguished  through  all  the  tenses  of  the  indicative  and  po- 
tential moods.  In  the  plural  number  there  is  no  variation  of  ending, 
ho  denote  the  different  persons,  and  the  verb  in  the  three  persons 
plural,  is  the  same  as  in  the  first  person  singular. — [See  Inst.  E. 
Gi'am.  p.  55,  et  seq.~\ 

Obs.  2.  The  second  person  singular  is  regularly  formed  by  adding 
st  or  est  to  the  first  person ;  and  the  third  person  in  like  manner,  by 
adding  sores:  as,  I  see,  thou  seest,  he  sees  ;  I  give,  thou  givest,  he 
gives;  I  go,  thou  go3st,  he  goes;  I  fly,  thou  fliest,  he  flies  ;  I  vex, 
thou  vexest,  he  vexes ;  I  lose,  thou  losest,  he  loses. 

Obs.  3.  The  third  person  singular  was  anciently  formed  in  th  or 
eth  ;  but  this  termination  is  now  confined  to  the  solemn  style. 

Obs.  4.  The  only  regular  terminations  that  are  added  to  verbs, 
are  ing,  d  or  ed,  st  or  est,  s  or  es,  th  or  eth.  Ing,  and  th  or  eth,  al- 
ways add  a  syllable  to  the  verb*,  except  in  doth,  hath,  saith.  The 
rest,  whenever  their  sound  will  unite  with  that  of  the  final  syllable 
of  the  verb,  are  added  without  increasing  the  number  of  syllables ; 
otherwise,  they  are  separately  pronounced.  In  solemn  discourse, 
however,  ed  and  est,  are,  by  most  speakers,  uttered  distinctly  in  all 
cases :  except  some  few  in  which  a  vowel  precedes ;  as  in  glorified. 

CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS. 

The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  a  regular  arrange- 
ment of  its  moods,  tenses,  persons,  numbers,  and 
parliciples. 

There  are  four  principal  parts  in  the  conju- 
gation of  every  simple  and  complete  verb :  namely, 
the  Present,  the  Preterit,  the  Imperfect  Parti- 
ciple, and  the  Perfect  Participle*  A  verb  which 
wants  any  of  these  parts,  is  called  defective. 

An  auxiliary  is  a  short  verb  prefixed  to  one  of 
the  principal  parts  of  an  other  verb,  to  express 
gome  particular  mode  and  time  of  the  being,  action, 
or  passion.  The  auxiliaries  are  do,  be,  have,  shall, 
will,  may,  can,  and  must,  with  their  variations. 

Obs.  Some  of  these,  especially  do,  be,  and  have,  are  also  used  as 
principal  verbs. 

Verbs  are  conjugated  in  the  following  manner: 


ETYMOLOGY.  3 


I.  SIMPLE  FORM,  ACTIVE  OR  NEUTER. 

The  simplest  form  of  an  English  conjugation 
is  that  which  makes  the  present  and  imperfect 
1  enses  without  auxiliaries  ;  but  even  in  these,  aux- 
iliaries are  required  for  the  potential  mood,  and 
are  often  preferred  for  the  indicative 

FIRST  EXAMPLE. 

Conjugation  of  the  regular  active  verb 

LOVE. 

Principal  Parts. 
Present.        Preterit.      Imperfect  Participle.    Perfect  Participle 
Love.        Loved.  Loving.  Loved. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense.       To  love. 
Perfect  Tense.       To  have  loved. 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

1.  The  simple  form  of  the  present  tense  is  varied 
thus : 

Singular.  Plural. 

1st  per.     I  love,  1st  per.  We     love, 

2d  per.     Thou  lovest,  2d  per.  You   love, 

3d  per.     He  loves ;  3d  per.  They  love. 

2.  This  tense  may  also  be  formed  by  prefixing  the 
auxiliary  do  to  the  verb  :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  do      love,  1.  We     do  love, 

2.  Thou  dost  love,  2.  You    do  love, 

3.  He      does  love ;  3.  They  do  love. 

Imperfect    Tense. 
This  tense  in  its  simple  form,  is  the  preterit.     In  alJ 


38  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

regular  verbs,  it  adds  d  or  ed  to  the  present,  but  in  others 
it  is  formed  variously. 

1.  The  simple  form  of  the  imperfect  tense  is  varied 
thus : 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  loved,  1.  We    loved, 

2.  Thou  lovedst,  2.  You  loved, 

3.  He       loved;  3.  They  loved. 

2.  This  tense  may  also  be  formed  by  prefixing  the 
auxiliary  did  to  the  present :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.1  did      love,  1.  We     did  love, 

2.  Thou  didst  love,  2.  You  did  love, 

3.  He       did     love ;  3.  They  did  love. 

Perfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  have  to  the  perfect 
participle :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  loved,  1.  We      have  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast    loved,  2.  You     have  loved, 

3.  He       has     loved;  3.  They  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  had  to  the  perfect 
participle :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had     loved,  1.  We     had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved,  2.  You   had  loved, 

3.  He       had     loved;  3.  They  had  loved. 

First-future  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  shall  or  will  to  the 
present:  thus, 

1.  Simply  to  express  a  future  action  or  event : 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.1    -       shall  love,  1.  We     shall  love, 

2.  Thou  wilt  love,  2.  You   will   love, 

3.  He       will    love;  3.  They  will    ove. 


ETYMOLOGY.  39 

2.  To  express  a  promise,  volition,  command,  or  threat : 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  will     love,  1.  We      will    love, 

2.  Thou  shalt  love,  2.  You     shall  love, 

3.  He       shall   love ;  3.  They  shall  love. 

Second-future  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries  shall  have  or  will 
have  to  the  perfect  participle  :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I           shall  have  loved,  1.  We     shall  have  lovedr 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  loved,  2.  You   will  have  loved, 

3.  He       will  have  loved ;  3.  Theywill  have  loved. 

POTENTIAL    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  may,  can,  or  must,  to 
the  radical  verb  :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I           may     love,  1.  We    may  love, 

2.  Thou  mayst  love,  2.  You   may  love, 

3.  He       may    love ;  3.  They  may  love 

Imperfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliary  might,  could,  wonld^ 
or  should,  to  the  radical  verb  :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might    love,  1.  We    might  love, 

2.  Thou  mightst  love,  2.  You  might  love, 

3.  He       might    love;  3.  They  might  love. 

Perfect  Tense. 
This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries  may  have,  can  have^ 
or  must  have,  to  the  perfect  participle  :  thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may    have  loved,  I.  We     may  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  loved,  2.  You   may  have  loved, 

3.  He       may     have  loved;  3.  They  may  have  love  . 


40  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

This  tense  prefixes  the  auxiliaries  might  have,  could 
have,  would  have,  or  should  have,  to  the  perfect  participle : 
thus, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  1           might    have  loved,  1.  "We     might  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved,  2.  You   might  have  loved, 

3.  He       might    have  loved ;  3.  They  might  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
This  tense  is  generally  used  to  express  some  condition 
on  which  a  future  action  or  event  is  affirmed,  and  is  there- 
fore considered  by  some  grammarians,  as  an  elliptical  form 
of  the  future. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  1         love,  1.  If  we      love, 

2.  If  thou  love,  2.  If  you     love, 

3.  If  he      love ;  3.  If  they   love. 

Imperfect   Tense. 

This  tense,  as  well  as  the  imperfect  of  the  potential 
mood,  with  which  it  is  frequently  connected,  is  properly 
an  aorist,  or  indefinite  tense,  and  may  refer  to  time  past, 
present,  or  future. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        loved,  I.  If  we      loved, 

2.  If  thou  loved,  2.  If  you      loved, 

3.  If  he      loved;  3.  If  they   loved. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 


Singular.  2.  Love 


thou,]  or  Do  thou  love. 


Plural.       2.  Love  [ye  or  you,]  or  Do  you  love. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.  The  Imperfect,  Loving. 

2.  The  Perfect,  Loved. 

3.  The  Pluperfect,  Having  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY.  41 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  FIRST  EXAMPLE. 

First  Person  Singular. 

Ind.  I  love,  I  loved,  I  have  loved,  I  had  loved,  I  shall  love,  1 
shall  have  loved.  Pot.  I  may  love,  I  might  love,  I  may  have  loved, 
I  might  have  loved.     Subj.  It  I  love,  If  1  loved. 

Second  Person  Singular* 

Ind.  Thou  lovest,  Thou  lovedst,  Thou  hast  loved,  Thou  hadst 
loved,  Thou  wilt  love,  Thou  wilt  have  loved.  Pot.  Thou  mayst 
love,  Thou  mightst  love,  Thou  mayst  have  loved,  Thou  mightst 
have  loved.  Subj.  If  thou  love,  If  thou  loved.  Imp.  Love  [thou], 
or  Do  thou  love. 

Third  Person  Singular. 

Ind.  He  loves,  He  loved,  He  has  loved,  He  had  loved,  He  will 
love,  He  will  have  loved.  Pot.  He  may  love,  He  might  love,  He 
may  have  loved,  He  mignt  have  loved.  Subj.  If  he  love,  If  he 
loved. 

First  Person  Plural. 

Ind.  We  love,  We  loved,  We  have  loved,  We  had  loved,  We 
shall  love,  We  shall  have  loved.  Pot.  We  may  love,  We  might 
love,  We  may  have  loved.  We  might  have  loved.  Subj.  If  we  love, 
If  we  loved. 


*  In  Ihe  familiar  use  of  the  second  person  singular,  as  retained  by  the  Society  of 
Friends,  the  verb  is  usually  varied  only  in  the  present  tense  of  the  indicative  mood, 
and  in  the  auxiliary  hast  of  the  perfect.    Thus  . 

Ind.  Thou  lovest,  Thou  loved,  Thou  hast  loved,  Thou  had  loved,  Thou  will  love, 
Thou  vvill  have  loved.  Pot.  Thou  may  love,  Thou  might  love,  Thou  may  have 
loved,  Thou  might  have  loved.  Subj.  If  thou  love,  If  thou  loved.  Imp.  Love 
[thou,]  or  Do  thou  love. 

To  avoid  an  unnecessary  increase  of  syllables,  the  formation  of  the  second  per- 
son singular  of  the  present  tense,  is  also  in  some  degree  simplified,  ana  rendered 
closely'amilojrous  to  that  of  the  third  person  singular:  st  or  est  being  added  forth* 
former  exactly  as  s  or  es  is  added  for  the  latter :  as,  I  know  thou  knowst,  he  knows , 
I  real,  thou  readst,  he  reads ;  I  take,  thou  takes!,  he  takes ;  I  bid,  thou  bidst,  he  bids; 
I  pity,  thou  pitiest,  he  pities.  Thus  there  is  no  increase  of  syllables,  when  the  verb 
ends  with  a  sound  which  will  unite  with  that  of  the  letters  added.  [See  Inst.  E. 
Oram.  p.  50  ) 

This  me  hod  of  forming  the  verb,  accords  with  the  practice  of  the  most  intelli- 
gfnt  of  those  who  retain  the  common  use  of  this  distinctive,  and  consistent  mode  of 
allies*.  It  disencumbers  their  familiar  dialect  of  a  multitude  of  harsh  and  use- 
lesi  terminations,  which  serve  only,  when  uttered,  to  give  an  uncouth  prominency 
to  words  not  often  emphatic;  and,  without  impairing  the  strength  or  perspicuity 
of  the  language,  increases  its  harmony,  and  reduces  the  form  of  the  verb,  in  the 
second  person  singular,  nearly  to  the  same  simplicity  as  in  the  other  persons  and 
numbers.  This  simplification  is  supported  by  usage  as  extensive  as  the  familiar 
use  of  the  pronoun  thnu,  and  is  also  in  accordance  with  the  canons  of  criticism. 
"All  words  and  phrases  which  are  remarkably  harsh  and  unharmonious,  and  not 
absolutely  necessary,  should  be  rejected." — Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric 
Shi.  2.  Canan  First. 

4* 


42 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Second  Person  Plural. 

Ind.  You  love,  You  loved,  You  have  loved,  You  had  loved,  You 
will  love,  You  will  have  loved.  Pot.  You  may  love,  You  might 
love,  You  may  have  loved,  You  might  have  loved.  Subj.  If  you 
love.  If  you  loved.     Imp.  Love  [ye  or  you],  or  Do  you  love. 

Third  Person  Plural. 

Ind.  They  love,  They  loved,  They  have  loved,  They  had  loved, 
They  will  love,  They  will  have  loved.  Pot.  They  may  love,  They 
might  love,  They  may  have  loved,  They  might  have  loved.  Subj. 
If  they  love,  If  they  loved. 


Present. 
See. 


SECOND  EXAMPLE. 

Conjugation  of  the  irregular  active  verb 

SEE. 

Principal  Parts. 

Imperfect  Participle.     Perfect  Participte* 


Preterit. 
Saw. 


Seeinof. 


Seen. 


INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense.       To  See. 
Perfect  Tense.        To  have  seen. 

INDICATIVE     MOOD. 


Present  Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I           see, 

1.  We     see, 

2. 

Thou  seest, 

2.  You    see, 

3. 

He      sees ; 

3.  They  see. 

Imperfect 

Tense. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I           saw, 

1.  We      saw, 

2. 

Thou  sawest, 

2.  You    saw, 

3. 

He       saw ; 

3.  They  saw. 

Perfect 

Tense. 

Singular. 

PluraL 

1. 

I          have  seen, 

1.  We     h^vp  seen, 

2. 

Thou  hast  seen, 

2.  You   have  seen, 

3. 

He       has     seen ; 

X  They  have  seen. 

ETYMOLOGY  43 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had    seen,  1.  We     had  seen, 

2.  Thou  hadst  seen,  2.  You   had  seen, 

3.  He       had     seen ;  3.  They  had  seen. 

Fir  si-future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  see,  1.  We     shall  see, 

2.  Thou  wilt  see,  2.  You  will  see, 

3.  He       will   see ;  3.  They  will  see. 

Second-future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  seen,  I.  We     shall  have  seen, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  seen,  2.  You   will  have  seen, 

3.  He      will   have  seen ;  3.  They  will  have  seen 

POTENTIAL    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  '    Plural. 

1.  1  may     see,  1.  We     may  see, 

2.  Thou  mayst  see,  2.  You   may  see, 

3.  He       may    see ;  3.  They  may  see. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I           might    see,  1.  We    might  see, 

2.  Thou  mightst  see,  2.  You  might  see, 

3.  He       might     see :  3.  They  might  sec. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  1  may     have  seen,         1.  We     may  have  seen, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  seen,         2.  You    may  have  seen, 

3.  He       may     have  seen  ;        3.  They  may  have  seen. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular  Plural. 

1.  I  might     have  seen,      1.  We      might  have  seen, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  seen,      2.  You    might  have  seen, 

3.  He       might     have  seen  ;     3.  They  might  have  seen. 


44  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1;  -If  I        see,  1    If  we     see, 

2.  If  thou  see,  2.  If  you  see, 

3.  If  he      see ;  3.  If  they  see. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I         saw,  1.  If  we       saw, 

2.  If  thou  saw,  2.  If  you      saw, 

3.  If  he       saw;  3.  If  they    saw. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

Present   Tense. 

Singular.  2.  See  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  see. 
Plural.       2.  See  [ye  or  you,]  or  Do  you  see. 

PARTICIPLES. 

i.  The  Imperfect.  2.  The  Perfect.  3.   The  Pluperfect 

Seeing.  Seen.  Having  seen. 

THIRD  EXAMPLE. 

Conjugation  of  the  irreg  ular  neuter  verb 

BE. 

Principal  Parts. 
Present.        Preterit.       Imperfect  Participle.     Perfect  Participle 
Be.  Was.  Being.  Been. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense.       To  be. 
Perfect  Tense.       To  have  been. 

INDICATIVE     MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  PluraL 

1.  I  am,  1.  We     are, 

2.  Thou  art,  2.  You    are, 

3.  He       is ;  3.  They  are. 


ETYMOLOGY.                                                 41 

I. 

2. 
3. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular,                                         Plural. 
1          was,                            1.  We     were, 
Thou  wast,                            2.  You    were, 
He       was ;                            3.  They  were. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.                                        Plural. 
I           have  been,                   I.  We      have  been, 
Thou  hast   been,                  2.  You     have  been, 
He       has     been ;                 3.  They  have  been. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.                                             Plural. 
I           had    been,                   I.  We     had  been, 
Thou  hadst  been,                  2.  You    had  been, 
He       had     been ;                  3.  They  had  been. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

First-future  Tense. 
Singular.                                              Plural. 
I           shall  be,                        1.  We      shall  be, 
Thou  wilt    be,                      2.  You    will   be, 
He       will    be;                      3.  They  will   be. 

i. 

2. 
3. 

Second-future  Tense. 
Singular.                                            Plural. 
I          shall  have  been,           1.  We      shall  have  been, 
Thou  wilt   have  been,          2.  You    will    have  been, 
He       will   have  been  ;         3.  They  will   have  been 

POTENTIAL    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 


Singular. 

1.  I  may     be, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be, 

3.  He       may     be ; 


Singular. 

1.  I  might    be, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be, 

3.  He       might    be; 


Plural. 

1.  We     may  be, 

2.  You    may  be, 

3.  They  may  be. 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Plural. 

1.  We    might  be, 

2.  You   might  be, 

3.  Thoy  might  be. 


45  ENGLISH     GRAMMAR. 

Perfect   Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may     have  been,         1.  We     may  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been,         2.  You    may  have  been, 

3.  He      may     have  been  ;        3.  They  may  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might     have  been,      1.  We     might  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been,      2.  You    might  have  been, 
3    He       might    have  been ;     3.  They  might  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        be,  1.  If  we    be, 

2.  If  thou  be,  2.  If  you  be, 

3.  If  he      be ;  3.  If  they  be. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I         were,  1.  If  we      were, 

2.  If  thou  wert,  2.  If  you    were, 

3.  If  he      were;  3.  If  they  were. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

Present   Ten&e, 
Singular.  2.  Be  [thou,]  or  Do  thou  be. 
Plural.      2.  Be  [ye  or  you,]  or  Do  you  be. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.  The  Imperfect.  2.  The  Perfect.  3.   The  Pluperfect. 

Being.  Been.  Having  been. 

II.  COMPOUND  FORM,  ACTIVE  OR  NEUTER. 

Active  and  neuter  verbs  may  also  be  conju- 
gated, by  adding  the  Imperfect  Participle  to  the 
auxiliary  verb  be,  through  all  its  changes ;  as,  I 
am  writing }  He  is  sitting.  This  compound 
form  of  conjugation  denotes  a  continuance  of  the 
action  or  state  of  being,  and  is,  on  many  occa- 
sions, preferable  to  the  simple  form  of  the  verb. 


ETYMOLOGY  47 

FOURTH  EXAMPLE. 
Compound  form  of  the  irregular  active  verb 

READ. 

Principal  Parts  of  the  simple  verb. 
Present.        Preterit.      Imperfect  Participle.    Perfect  Participle. 
Read.  Read.  Reading.  Read. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense.       To  be  reading. 
Perfect  Tense.       To  have  been  reading. 

INDICATIVE     MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am  reading,  1.  We     are  reading, 

2.  Thou  art  reading,  2.  You    are  reading, 

3.  He       is     reading;  3.  They  are  reading. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  was  reading,  1.  We     were  reading, 

2.  Thou  wast  reading,  2.  You   were  reading, 

3.  He       was   reading ;  3.  They  were  reading. 

Perfect   Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been  reading,    1.  We     have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  reading,    2.  You  have  been  reading, 

3.  He      has     been  reading ;  3.  They  have  been  reading. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had"   been  reading,     1.  We     had  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  hadstbeen  reading,     2.  You    had  been  reading, 

3.  He      had    been  reading ;    3.  They  had  been  reading. 

First-future   Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  be  reading,  I.  We     shall  be  reading, 

2.  Thou  wilt  be  reading,  2.  You  will   be  reading, 

3.  He      will   be  reading  ;         3.  They  will   be  reading. 


48  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Second-future  Tense. 

Singular.     1.  I  shall  have  been  reading 

2.  Thou  wilt   have  been  reading 

3.  He       will   have  been  reading ; 
Plural.         1.  We      shall  have  been  reading, 

2.  You    will   have  been  reading, 

3.  They  will   have  been  reading. 

POTENTIAL    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may    be  reading,        1.  We     may  be  reading, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  reading,       2.  You    may  be  reading, 

3.  He       may     be  reading ;      3.  They  may  be  reading. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might    be  reading,     1.  We     might  be  reading, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  reading,     2.  You  might  be  readingj 

3.  He      might    be  reading  ;    3.  They  might  be  reading 

Perfect   Tense. 

Singular.      1.  I  may     have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  reading, 
3  He       may     have  been  reading ; 

Plural.  1.  We     may  have  been  reading, 

2.  You    may  have  been  reading, 

3.  They  may  have  been  reading. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.      1.  I  might    have  been  reading, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  reading, 

3.  He      might    have  been  reading ; 
Plural.          1.  We      might  have  been  reading, 

2.  You    might  have  been  reading, 

3.  They  might  have  been  reading. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Ten^e. 
Singular.  Plural 

L  If  I         be  reading,  1.  If  we     be  reading, 

2.  If  thou  be  reading,  2.  If  you   be  reading, 

3.  Ff  he       be  reading ,  3    If  they  be  reading. 


ETYMOLOGY.  49 

Imperfect    Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  x        were  reading,  1.  If  we      were  reading, 

2.  If  thou  wert  reading,  2.  If  you    were  reading, 

3.  If  he      were  reading ;  3.  If  they  were  reading. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 


Sing.  2.  Be 
Plur.  2.  Be 


thouj  reading,  or  Do  thou  be  reading, 
ye  or  you]  reading,  or  Do  you  be  reading, 


PARTICIPLES. 


1.  The  Imperfect.           2.  The  Perfect.        3.   The  Pluperfect. 
Being  reading.  Having  been  reading. 

III.  FORM  OP  PASSIVE  VERBS. 

Passive  verbs,  in  English,  are  always  of  a  com- 
pound form.  They  are  formed  from  active-tran- 
sitive verbs,  by  adding  the  Perfect  Participle  to 
the  auxiliary  verb  be,  through  all  its  changes : 
thus,  from  the  active-transitive  verb  love,  is 
formed  the  passive  verb  be  laved. 

Obs.  In  the  compound  forms  of  conjugation,  the  imperfect  parti- 
ciple is  sometimes  taken  in  a  passive  sense :  as,  "  The  goods  are 
selling;  the  ships  are  building:"  and  the  perfect  participle  of  an 
active-intransitive  verb,  may  have  a  neuter  signification:  as,  "I 
am  come  ;  He  is  risen  ;  They  are  fallen"  The  former  are  passive. 
and  the  latter,  neuter  verbs. 

FIFTH  EXAMPLE. 

Conjugation  of  the  regular  passive  verb 

BE  LOVED. 

Principal  Parts  of  the  active  verb. 

Present.        Preterit.      Imperfect  Participle.    Perfect  Participle. 

Ix>ve.  Loved.  Loving.  Loved. 


I 

60  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense,  To  be  loved, 

Perfect  Tense,  To  have  been  lovert 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am  loved,  1.  We     are  loved, 

2.  Thou  art  loved,  2.  You   are  loved, 

3.  He      is     loved ;  3.  They  are  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  was  loved,  1.  We     were  loved, 

2.  Thou  wast  loved,  2.  You   were  loved, 

3.  He      was  loved ;  3.  They  were  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

i.  I  have  been  loved,        1.  We      have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved,        2.  You     have  been  loved, 

3.  He       has    been  loved  ;       3.  They  have  been  loved 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

a.  I  haa    been  loved,         I.  We     had  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved,         2.  You    had  been  loved, 

3.  He      had    been  loved ;        3.  They  had  been  loved. 

First-future  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  be  loved,  1.  We      shall  be -loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  be  loved,  2.  You     will   be  loved, 

3.  He      will  be  loved ;  3.  They  will   be  loved. 

Second-future  Tense. 

Singular,      1.  I  shall  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been  loved, 

3.  He       will  have  been  loved ; 
Plural.          1.  We      shall  have  been  loved, 

2.  You     will    have  been  loved, 

3.  They  will    have  been  loved. 


ETYMOLGY. 


51 


POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 


Singular. 

I  may    be  loved, 

Thou  mayst  be  loved, 


Plural. 

1.  We     may  be  loved, 

2.  You    may  be  loved, 

3.  They  may  be  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

might    be  loved,         1.  We     might  be  loved, 


3.  He       may    be  loved 


1.  I 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved, 

3.  He      might    be  loved  ; 


2.  You    might  be  loved, 

3.  They  might  be  If  "<?d 


">:, 


Perfect   Tense. 

ngular.      1.  I  may     have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved, 

3.  He      may    have  been  loved ; 
Plural.         1.  We     may     have  been  loved, 

2.  You    may     have  been  loved, 

3.  They  may    have  been  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

Singular.      1.  I         might    have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved, 

3.  He      might    have  been  loved  ; 
Plural.         1.  We     might   have  been  loved, 

2.  You    might    have  been  loved, 

3.  They  might    have  been  loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I         be  loved,  1.  If  we      be  loved, 

2.  If  thou  be  loved,  2.  If  you     be  loved, 


If  he      be  loved 


3.  If  they    be  loved ; 

Imperfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I        were  loved.  1.  If  we      were  loved, 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved,'  2.  If  you     were  loved, 

3.  If  he     were  loved;  3.  If  they   were  loved 


52  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  2.  Be  [thou]  loved,  or  Do  thou  be  loved. 
Plural.       2.  Be  [ye  or  you]  loved,  or  Do  you  be  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.  The  Imperfect.        2.  The  Perfect.        3.  The  Pluperfect, 
Being  loved.  Loved.  Having  been  loved. 

IV.  FORM  OF  NEGATION. 
A  verb  is  conjugated  negatively,  by  placing 
the  adverb  not  after  it,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary  $ 
but  the   infinitive  and  the  participles  take   the 
negative  first :  as, 

Inf.  Not  to  love,  Not  to  have  loved.  Ind.  I  love  not,  or  I  do  not 
jove,  I  loved  not,  or  I  did  not  love,  I  have  not  loved,  I  had  not  loved, 
I  shall  not  love,  I  shall  not  have  loved.  Pot.  I  may,  can,  or  must 
not  love  ;  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  not  love ;  I  may,  can,  or 
must  not  have  loved ;  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  not  have 

bved.     Subj.  If  I  love  not,  If  I  loved  not.     Part.  Not  loving,  Not 

Dved,  Not  having  loved. 

V.  FORM  OF  QUESTION. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively,  in  the  in- 
dicative and  potential  moods,  by  placing  the  nom 
inative  after  it,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary  :  as, 

Ind.  Do  I  love  ?  Did  I  love?  Have  I  loved?  Had  I  loved?  Shall 
I  love  ?  Shall  I  have  loved  1  Pot.  May,  can,  or  must  I  love  J  Might, 
could,  would,  or  should  I  love  1  May,  can,  or  must  I  have  loved  * 
Might,  could,  would,  or  should  I  have  loved  T 

VI.  FORM  OF  QUESTION  WITH  NEGATION. 
A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively,  and  neg 
atively,  in  the  indicative  and  potential  moods,  by 
placing  the  nominative  and  the  adverb  not  after 
the  verb,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary  :  as, 

Ind.  Do  I  not  love  ?  Did  I  not  love  T  Have  I  not  loved  ?  Had  I 
not  loved  ?  Shall  I  not  love !  Shall  I  not  have  loved !  Pot.  May, 
can,  or  must  I  not  love  1  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  I  not  love  ! 
May,  can,  or  must  I  not  have  loved  ?  Might,  could,  would,  or  should 
I  not  have  loved  ? 


ETYMOLOGY. 


58 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


An  irregular  verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not  form 
the  preterit  and  the  perfect  ^participle  by  assum- 
ing d  or  ed. 

The  simple  irregular  verbs  are  nearly  all  monosyllables.  Tho 
following  is  a  list  of  them,  as  they  are  now  generally  used.  Those 
marked  with  the  letter  r,  admit  also  the  regular  form. 

Present.     Preterit.     Perf.Part.  Present.    Preterit.  P erf.  Part 

dwelt,  r  dwelt,  r 

ate,  eaten, 

fell,  fallen, 

fed,  fed. 

felt,  0  It. 

fought,  lought. 

found,  found, 

fled,  '  fled, 

flung,  flung, 

flew,  flown, 

forsook,  forsaken, 

froze,  frozen, 

got,  got. 

gilt,  r  gilt,  r 

girt,  r  girt,  r 

gave,  given, 

went,  gone. 

ground,  ground, 

grew,  grown, 

hung,  r  hung,  r 

had,  had. 

heard,  heard, 

hid,  hidden, 

hit,  hit. 

held,  held, 

hurt,  hurt, 

kept,  kept, 

knelt,  r  knelt  r 

knit,  r  knit  r 

knew,  known, 

laded,  laden, 

laid,  laid, 

led,  led. 

left,  left. 


Abide, 

abode,* 

abode. 

Dwell, 

Be, 

was, 

been. 

Eat, 

•Bear, 

bore, 

borne. 

Fall, 

Beat, 

beat, 

beaten. 

Feed, 

Begin, 

began, 

begun. 

Feel, 

Bend, 

bent,  r 

bent  r 

Fight, 

Beseech, 

besought, 

besought 

Find, 

Bid, 

bade, 

bidden. 

Flee, 

Bind, 

bound, 

bound. 

Fling, 

Bite, 

bit, 

bitten. 

Fly, 

Bleed, 

bled, 

bled. 

Forsake, 

Blow, 

blew, 

blown. 

Freeze, 

Break, 

broke, 

broken. 

Get, 

Breed, 

bred, 

bred. 

Gild, 

Bring, 

brought, 

brought. 

Gird, 

Build, 

built,  r 

built  r 

Give, 

Burst, 

burst, 

burst. 

Go, 

Buy, 

bought, 

bought. 

Grind, 

Cast, 

cast, 

cast 

Grow, 

Catch, 

caught,  r 

caught,  r 

Hang, 

Chide, 

chid, 

chidden. 

Have, 

Choose, 

chose, 

chosen. 

Hear, 

Cling, 

clung, 

clung. 

Hide, 

Come, 

came, 

come. 

Hit, 

Cost, 

cost, 

cost. 

Hold, 

Creep, 

crept,  r 

crept  r 

Hurt, 

Cut, 

cut, 

cut. 

Keep, 

Deal, 

dealt,  r 

dealt,  r 

Kneel, 

Dig, 

dug,  r 

dug.  r 

Knit, 

Do, 

did, 

done. 

Know, 

Draw, 

drew, 

drawn. 

Lade, 

Dream, 

dreamt,  r 

dreamt,  r 

Lay, 

Drive, 

drove, 

driven. 

Lead, 

Drink, 

drank, 

drunk. 

Leave, 

*  After  the  Preterit  the  learner  should  insert  the  Imperfect  Participle ;  which  is  a! 
n'ays  formed  by  adding  ing  to  the  Present,  or  Root  of  the  verb  :  thus,  Abide,  ahodi 
abiding,  abode. 


54 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Present. 

Lend, 

Let, 

Lie, 

Lose, 

Make, 

Mean. 

Meet,' 

Pay, 

Put, 

auit, 

Read, 

Reave, 

Rend, 

Rid, 

Ride, 

Ring, 

Rise, 

Run, 

Say, 

See, 

Seek, 

Sell, 

"Bend, 

Set, 

Shake, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 

Show, 

Shoot, 

Shut, 

Shred, 

Shrink, 

Sing, 

Sink, 

Sit, 

Slay, 

Sleep, 

Slide, 

Sling, 

Slink, 


Preterit. 

Per/.  Part.  Present. 

Preterit. 

Perf.  Part 

lent, 

lent. 

Slit, 

slit,  r 

slit,  r 

let, 

let. 

Smite, 

smote, 

smitten 

lay, 

lain. 

Speak, 

spoke, 

spoken 

lost. 

lost. 

Speed, 

sped, 

sped. 

made. 

macte. 

Spend, 

spent, 

spent. 

meant  r 

meant,  r 

Spill, 

spilt,  r 

spilt,  r 

met, 

met. 

Spin, 

spun, 

spun. 

paid, 

paid. 

Spit, 

spit, 

spit. 

put, 

put. 

Split, 

split, 

split. 

quit,  r 
read, 

quit,  r 

Spread, 

spread, 

spread. 

read. 

Spring, 

sprung, 

sprung. 

reft,  r 

reft,  r 

Stand, 

'  stood, 

stood. 

rent, 

rent. 

Steal, 

stole, 

stolen. 

rid, 

rid. 

Stick, 

stuck, 

stuck. 

rode, 

ridden. 

Sting, 

stung, 

stung. 

rung, 

rung. 

Stride, 

strode, 

stridden. 

rose, 

risen. 

Strike, 

struck, 

struck. 

ran, 

run. 

String, 

strung,  r 

strung,  r 

said, 

said. 

Strive, 

strove,  r 

striven,  r 

saw, 

seen. 

Swear, 

swore, 

sworn. 

sought, 

sought. 

Sweep, 

swept, 

swept. 

sold, 

sold. 

Swim, 

swum, 

swum. 

sent, 

sent 

Swing, 

swung, 

swung. 

set, 

set. 

Take, 

took, 

taken. 

shook, 

shaken. 

Teach, 

taught, 

taught 

shed, 

shed. 

Tear, 

tore, 

torn. 

shone,  r 

shone,  r 

Tell, 

told, 

told. 

shod, 

shod. 

Think, 

thought, 

thought. 

showed, 

shown. 

Thrive, 

throve,  r 

thriven,  t 

shot, 

shot. 

Throw, 

threw, 

thrown. 

shut. 

shut. 

Thrust, 

thrust, 

thrust 

shred, 

shred. 

Tread, 

trod, 

trodden. 

shrunk, 

shrunk. 

Wear, 

wore, 

worn. 

sung, 

sung. 

Weave, 

wove, 

woven. 

sunk, 

sunk. 

Weep, 

wept,  r 

wept,  r 

sat, 

sat. 

Win, 

won, 

won. 

slew, 

slain. 

Wind, 

wound,  r 

wound. 

slept, 

slept. 

Wont, 

wont,  r 

wont,  r 

slid, 

slidden. 

Work, 

wrought, 

r  wrought  : 

slung, 

slung. 

Wring, 

wrung, 

wrung. 

slunk, 

slunk. 

Write, 

wrote, 

written. 

DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 


A  defective  verb  is  a  verb  which  wants  some 
oi  the  principal  parts.  When  any  of  the  princi- 
pal parts  are  wanting,  the  tenses  usually  derived 
from  those  parts  are  also  wanting. 


ETYMOLOGY.  56 

All  the  auxiliaries,  except  do,  be,  and  have,  are 
defective. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  defective  verbs : 

Present.  Preterit.  Imp.  Part.  Per.  Part. 

Beware, 


Can,  could, 

May,  might, 

Must,  must, 

Ought,  ought, 

Shall,  should, 

Will,  would, 

'-iuoth.  quoth, 


OF  THE  PARTICIPLE. 

A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb  par 
ticipating  the  properties  of  a  verb  and  an  adjective; 
and  is  generally  formed  by  adding  ing,  d,  or  ed 
to  the  verb :  thus,  from  the  verb  rule,  are  formed 
three  participles,  two  simple  and  one  compound ; 
as,  1 .  ruling,  2.  ruled,  3.  having  ruled. 

CLASSES. 
English  verbs  have  severally  three  participles  5 
the  First  or  Imperfect,  the  Second  or  Perfect, 
and  the  Third  or  Pluperfect.* 

I.  The  imperfect  participle  is  that  which  im- 
plies a  continuance  of  the  being,  action,  or  pas- 
sion •,  as,  being,  loving,  seeing,  writing — being 
loved,  being  seen,  being  writing. 

II.  The  perfect  participle  is  that  which  im- 
plies a  completion  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion ; 
as,  been,  loved,  seen,  written. 

III.  The  pluperfect  participle  is  that  which 
implies  a  previous  completion  of  the  being,  action, 
or  passion  ;  as,  having  loved,  having  seen,  hav- 
ing written — having  been  loved,  having  been 
writing,  having  been  written. 

The  First  or  Imperfect  Participle,  when  sim 

*  See  copious  observations  on  the  names  and  properties  of  the  participle*,  in  the  In 
■titutes  of  English  Grammar,  under  the  Etymology  of  this  part  of  speech. 


56  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

pie,  is  always  formed  by  adding  ing  to  tfoe  radical 
verb ;  as,  look,  looking :  when  compound  it  is 
formed  by  prefixing  being  to  some  other  simple 
participle ;  as,  being  reading,  being  read. 

The  Second  or  Perfect  Participle  is  always 
simple,  and  is  regularly  formed  by  adding  d  or  ed 
to  the  radical  verb :  those  verbs  from  which  it  is 
formed  otherwise,  are  inserted  in  the  list  as  being 
irregular. 

The  Third  or  Pluperfect  Participle  is  always 
compound,  and  is  formed  by  prefixing  having  to 
the  perfect,  when  the  compound  is  double,  and 
having  been  to  the  perfect  or  the  imperfect,  when 
the  compound  is  triple  5  as,  having  spoken,  hav- 
ing been  spoken,  having  been  speaking. 

Obs.  1.  Participles  often  become  adjectives,  and  are  construed  be- 
fore nouns  to  denote  quality.  "Words  of  a  participial  form,  may  be 
regarded  as  adjectives,  1.  When  they  denote  something  customary 
or  habitual,  rather  than  a  transient  act  or  state ;  as,  A  lying  rogue, 
i.  e.  one  addicted  to  lying.  2.  When  they  admit  adverbs  of  compar- 
ison ;  as,  A  more  learned  man.  3.  When  they  are  compounded  with 
something  that  does  not  belong  to  the  verb ;  as,  unfeeling,  unfelt. 
Adjectives  are  generally  placed  before  their  nouns :  participles,  af- 
ter them. 

Obs.  2.  Participles  in  ing  often  become  nouns.  When  preceded 
by  an  article,  an  adjective,  or  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  possessive 
case,  they  are  construed  as  nouns,  and  take  no  regimen,  or  object 
after  them. 

Obs.  3.  A  participle  immediately  preceded  by  a  preposition,  is  not 
converted  into  a  noun,  and  therefore  retains  its  regimen ;  as,  "  I 
thank  you  for  helping  him."  This  construction  of  the  participle  cor 
responds  with  the  Latin  Gerund. 

Obs.  4.  To  distinguish  the  participle  from  the  participial  noun, 
the  learner  shDuld  observe  the  following  four  things :  1.  Nouns  take 
articles  a.n.1  adjectives  before  them  ;  participles  do  not.  2.  Nouns 
may  govern  the  possessive  case,  but  not  the  objective  ;  participles 
may  govern  the  objective  case,  but  not  the  possessive.  3.  Nouns 
may  be  the  subjects  or  objects  of  verbs ;  participles  cannot — or,  at 
least  the  propriety  of  any  such  use  of  them,  is  doubtful.  4.  Par- 
ticipial nouns  express  actions  as  things ;  participles  refer  actions  tc 
their  agents  or  recipients. 

Obs.  5.  To  distinguish  the  perfect  participle  from  the  preterit  verb 
of  the  same  form,  observe  the  sense,  and  see  which  of  the  auxiliary 
forms  will  express  it :  thus  loved  for  being  loved,  is  a  participle ;  but 
loved  for  did  love,  is  a  preterit  verb. 


ETYMOLOGY.  67 

_    EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 

CHAPTER  V.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

//  is  here  required  of  the  pupil — to  distinguish  and  define  the 
different  parts  of  speech,  and  the  classes  and  modifications  of 
the  articles,  nouns,  adjectives,  pronouns,  verbs,  and  participles. 
Thus, 

EXAMPLE    PARSED. 

"  He  speaks  fluently :" 

He  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender,  and  nominative  case. 

1.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  in  stead  of  a  noun. 

2.  A  personal  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  shows,  by  its  form, 

of  what  person  it  is. 

3.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing 

merely  spoken  of. 

4.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 

5.  The  masculine  gender  is  that  which  denotes  animals  of  the 

male  kind. 

6.  The  nominative  case  is  that  form  or  state  of  a  noun  or  pro- 

noun, which  denotes  the  subject  of  a  verb. 
Speaks  is  an  irregular  active-intransitive  verb,  from  speak,  spoke, 
speaking,  spoken;  found  in  the  indicative  mood,  present 
tense,  third  person,  and  singular  number. 

1.  A  verb  is  a  word  that  signifies  to  be,  to  act,  or  to  be  acted 

upon. 

2.  An  irregular  verb  is  a  verb  that  does  not  form  the  preterit 

and  the  perfect  participle  by  assuming  d  or  ed. 

3.  An  active-intransitive  verb,  is  a  verb  that  expresses  an  ac- 

tion which  has  no  person  or  thing  for  its  object. 

4.  The  indicative  mood  is  that  form  of  the  verb,  which  simply 

indicates  or  declares  a  thing,  or  asks  a  question. 

5.  The  present  tense  is  that  which  expresses  what  now  exists 

or  is  taking  place. 

6.  The  third  person  is  that  which  denotes  the  person  or  thing 

merely  spoken  of. 

7.  The  singular  number  is  that  which  denotes  but  one. 
Fluently  is  an  adverb. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  participle,  an  adjective, 
or  an  other  adverb ;  and  generally  expresses  time,  place, 
degree,  or  manner. 

LESSON    I. 

I  learn  my  lessons.    Thou  art  sitting  idle.    He  plays.    She  speaks 
distinctly.   We  read  together.  You  do  not  cipher.  They  are  going  to 


58  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

school.  The  man  walks  slowly.  The  child  is  sleepy.  See  the  ducks 
swim.  The  chickens  do  not  swim ;  they  avoid  the  w^flr.  Hawks 
kill  chickens.     Spiders  make  cobwebs ;  they  catch  flies  in  them. 

LESSON    II. 

I  have  lost  my  book.  Do  you  know  where  it  is  ?  I  left  it  on  the 
table.  Somebody  has  taken  it.  If  I  had  been  careful,  I  should  have 
put  it  away  in  the  closet.  Inquire  of  the  maid ;  perhaps  she  has 
seen  it.  I  must  hot  go  to  school  without  it.  I  shall  not  know  my 
lesson  ;  and  the  master  will  detain  me. 

LESSON    III. 

It  is  a  pleasant  evening.  Come  hither,  Charles ;  look  at  the  sun. 
The  sun  is  in  the  west.  Yes,  because  he  is  going  to  set.  How  pretty 
the  sun  looks !  We  can  look  at  him  now ;  he  is  not  so  bright  as  he 
was  at  dinner-time,  when  he  was  up  high  in  the  sky.  And  how  beau- 
tiful the  clouds  are !  There  are  crimson  clouds,  and  purple,  and  gold- 
coloured  clouds.  Now  the  sun  is  going  down  very  fast.  Now  we 
can  see  only  half  of  him.    Now  we  cannot  see  him  at  all. 

LESSON    IV. 

Now  turn  and  look  towards  the  east.  What  is  it  that  shines  so  be- 
hind the  trees  1  Is  it  fire?  No,  it  is  the  moon.  It  is  very  large ;  and 
how  red  it  is !  The  moon  is  round  now,  because  it  is  full  moon :  but 
it  will  not  be  so  round  to-morrow  mgnt :  it  will  lose  a  little  bit ;  and 
the  next  night  it  will  lose  a  little  bit  more ;  and  more  the  next  night : 
bid  so  on,  till  it  is  like  a  bow  that  is  bent. — Barbauld. 

LESSON    V. 

Thus  the  moon  will  grow  less  and  less,  till  in  a  fortnight  there  will 
be  no  moon  at  all.  Then  there  will  come  a  new  moon ;  and  we  shall 
see  it  in  the  afternoon,  and  it  will  be  very  thin  at  first,  but  it  will 
grow  rounder  and  bigger  every  day,  till  at  last,  in  an  other  fortnight, 
it  will  be  full  moon  again  like  this,  and  we  shall  see  it  rise  again  be- 
hind the  trees. 

LESSON    VI. 

The  unwearied  sun  from  day  to  day 

Does  his  Creator's  power  display, 

And  publishes,  to  every  land, 

The  work  of  an  Almighty  nand. 

Soon  as  the  evening  shades  prevail, 

The  moon  takes  up  the  wondrous  tale ; 

And  nightly,  to  the  listening  earth, 

Repeats  the  story  of  her  birth : 

Whilst  all  the  stars  that  round  her  burn, 

And  all  the  planets,  in  their  turn, 

Confirm  the  tidings  as  tney  roll, 

And  spread  the  truth  from  pole  to  pole. — Addiaon, 


ETYMOLOGY.  59 


OF  THE  ADVERB. 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  a  partici- 
ple, an  adjective,  or  an  other  adverb ;  and  gener- 
ally expresses  time,  place,  degree,  or  manner  :  as, 
They  are  now  here,  studying  very  diligently. 

Obs.  Adverbs  briefly  express  what  would  otherwise  require  sev- 
eral words :  as,  here,  for  in  this  place.  There  are  several  customary 
combinations  of  short  words  which  are  used  adverbially,  and  which 
some  grammarians  do  not  analyze  in  parsing :  as,  Not  at  all,  at 
length,  in  vain. 

CLASSES. 

Adverbs  may  be  reduced  to  four  general  classes; 
namely,  adverbs  of  time,  of  place,  of  degree,  and 
of  manner. 

I.  Adverbs  of  time,  are  those  which  answer  to 
the  question  when  ?  or  how  often  ?  Adverbs  of 
time  may  be  subdivided  as  follows : 

1.  Of  time  present :  as,  Now,  yet,  to-day,  instantly. 

2.  Of  time  past :  as,  Already,  lately,  heretofore,  since,  ago. 

3.  Of  time  to  come :  as,  To-morroio,  hereafter,  henceforth. 

4.  Of  time  relative :  as,  When,  then,  before,  after,  while. 

5.  Of  time  absolute :  as,  Always,  ever,  never. 

6.  Of  time  repeated :  as,  Often,  seldom,  daily,  thrice. 

7.  Of  the  order  of  time:  as,  First,  secondly,  thirdly,  &c. 

II.  Adverbs  of  place,  are  those  which  answer 
to  the  question  where  ?  whither  ?  or  whence  ? 
Adverbs  of  place  may  be  subdivided  as  follows : 

1.  Of  place  in  which:  as,  Where,  here,  there,  somewhere. 

2.  Of  place  to  which:  as,  Whither,  hither,  thither. 

3.  Of  place  from  which:  as,  Whence,  hence,  thence. 

4.  Of  the  order  of  place :  as,  First,  secondly,  thirdly. 

III.  Adverbs  of  degree,  are  those  which  an 
swer  to  the  question  how  much  ?     Adverbs  of 
degree  may  be  subdivided  as  follows : 

1.  Of  excess  or  abundance:  as,  Much,  chiefly,  fully. 
3   Of  equality:  as,  Enough,  siifficiently,  equally,  so,  as. 


60  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

3.  Of  deficiency  or  abatement:  as,  Little,  scarcely,  Jiardly. 

4.  Of  quantity :  as,  How,  everso,  somewhat. 

IV.  Adverbs  of  manner,  are  those  which  an- 
swer to  the  question  how  ?  or  show  how  a  sub- 
ject is  regarded.  Adverbs  of  manner  may  be 
subdivided  as  follows : 

1.  Of  quality :  as,  Well,  ill,  wisely,  foolishly,  justly,  and  many 

others  formed  by  adding  ly  to  adjectives  of  quality. 

2.  Of  affirmation :  as,  Yes,  yea,  verily,  truly,  indeed,  surely. 

3.  Of  negation:  as,  No,  nay,  not,  nowise. 

4.  Of  doubt :  as,  Perhaps,  haply,  possibly,  perchance. 

5.  Of  mode :  as,  Thus,  so,  somehow,  like,  else,  otherwise. 

6.  Of  cause :  as,  Why,  wherefore,  therefore. 

Obs.  The  adverbs  here,  there,  and  where,  when  prefixed  to  prepo- 
sitions, have  the  force  of  pronouns ;  as,  whereby,  for  by  which.  Com- 
pounds of  this  kind  are,  however,  commonly  reckoned  adverbs. 

Adverbs  sometimes  perform  the  office  of  con- 
junctions, and  serve  to  connect  sentences,  as  well 
as  to  express  some  circumstance  of  time,  place, 
degree,  or  manner  ;  adverbs  that  are  so  used,  are 
called  conjunctive  adverbs :  as,  When,  where^ 
after,  before,  since,  therefore,  fyc. 

MODIFICATIONS.  ' 

Adverbs  have  no  modifications,  except  that  a 
few  are  compared  after  the  manner  of  adjectives  : 
as,  Soon,  sooner,  soonest, — often,  oftener,  often- 
est, — long,  longer,  longest 

The  following  are  irregularly  compared :  well, 
better,  best, — badly  or  illj  wofise,  worst, — little, 
less,  least, — much,  more,  most, — far,  farther, 
farthest,— forfh,  further,  furthest. 

Obs.  1.  Most  adverbs  of  quality  will  admit  the  comparative  ad- 
verbs more  and  most,  less  and  least,  before  them :  as,  wisely,  more 
wisely,  most  wisely, — culpably,  less  culpably,  least  culpably.  But 
these  should  be  parsed  separately. 

Obs.  2.  As  comparison  does  not  belong  to  adverbs  in  general,  it 
should  not  be  mentioned  in  parsing,  except  in  the  case  of  those  few 
which  are  varied  by  it. 


ETYMOLOGY.  61 

OF  THE  CONJUNCTION. 
A  Conjunction  is  u  word  used  to  connect  words 
or  sentences  in  construction,  and  to  show  the  de- 
pendence of  the  terms  so  connected  :  as,  Thou 
and  he  are  happy,  because  you  are  good. 

CLASSES. 

Conjunctions  are  divided  into  two  classes ;  copu- 
lative and  disjunctive. 

A  copulative  conjunction,  is  a  conjunction  that 
denotes  an  addition,  a  cause,  or  a  supposition : 
as,  He  and  I  shall  not-  dispute  ;  for,  if  he  has  any 
choice,  I  shall  readily  grant  it. 

A  disjunctive  conjunction  is  a  conjunction  that 
denotes  opposition  of  meaning :  as,  u  Be  not  over- 
come [by]  evil,  but  overcome  evil  with  good." — 
Rom.  xii.  21. 

The  following  are  the  principal  conjunctions : 

1.  Copulative ;  and,  as,  both,  because,for,  if,  that. 

2.  Disjunctive;  or,  nor,  either,  neither,  than, 
though,  although,  yet,  but,  except,  whether,  lest, 
unless,  save,  notwithstanding. 


OF  THE  PREPOSITION. 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  express  some 
relation  of  different  things  or  thoughts  to  each 
other,  and  is  generally  placed  before  a  noun  or 
pronoun  :  as,  The  paper  lies  before  me  on  the  desk. 

The  following  are  the  principal  prepositions : 
above,about,  aboard,across, after,  against, along, 
amid  or  amidst,  among  or  amongst,  around,  at, 
athwart — before,  behind,  below,  beneath,  beside 
or  besides,  between  or  betwixt,  beyond,  by — con- 
cerning— down,  during — except,  excepting — 
for,  from — in,  into—notwithstandimg — of  off, 
on,   out-of    over,    overthwart — past— round — 

6 


'32  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

since — through,  throughout,  till,  to,  touching^ 
toward  or  towards — under,  underneath,  until^ 
unto,  up,  upon — with,  within,  without, 

Obs.  The  words  in  the  preceding  list  are  generally  prepositions. 
But  when  any  of  them  are  employed  without  a  subsequent  term  of 
relation  they  are  adverbs.  For,  when  it  signifies  because,  is  a  con- 
junction ;  without,  when  used  for  unless,  and  notwithstanding,  when 
placed  before  a  nominative,  are  usually  referred  to  the  same  class.  - 

OF  THE  INTERJECTION. 

An  Interjection  is  a  word  that  is  uttered  merely 
to  indicate  some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the 
mind  :  as,  Oh  !  alas  ! 

The  following  are  the  principal  interjections,  ar- 
ranged according  to  the  emotions  which  they  are 
generally  intended  to  indicate  : — 1.  Joy  ;  eigh ! 
hey  !  to  ! — 2.  Sorrow  $  oh !  ah !  alas  !  alack  ! 
welladay  /— 3.  Wonder  ;  heigh  !  ha !  strange ! — 
4.  Wishing  or  earnestness ;  O! — 5.  Pain ;  oh !  ha! 
he  ! — 6  Contempt ;  pugh  !  poh  !  pshaw  !  pish  ! 
tush  I  tut  I — 7.  Aversion;  foh  !  fie!  off!  be- 
gone !  avaunt  ! — 8.  Calling  aloud %,  ho  !  soho ! 
holla ! — 9.  Exultation,  aha  !  huzza  !  heyday  \ 
hurrah! — 10.  Laughter  ;  ha,  ha,  ha. — 11.  Salu- 
tation ;  welcome  !  hail!  all  hail ! — 12.  Calling  to 
attention;  lo!  behold  !  look!  see!  hark! — 13. 
Calling  to  silence ;  hush !  hist !  mum  — 14.  Sur- 
prise ;  oh !  ha !  hah  !  what ! — 15.  Languor  $ 
heigh-ho  !— 16.  Stopping  ;  avast !  whoh  ! 


EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 
CHAPTER  VI.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

It  is  here  required  of  the  pupil — to  distinguish  and  define  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  speech,  and  all  their  classes  and  modifications. 

lesson  1. 
What  is  that  tall  thing  that  has  four  great  arms  which  move  very 
fast  1     I  believe,  if  I  were  near  it,  it  would  strike  me  down.     It  .e 


ETYMOLOGY.  63 

a  windmill.  Those  arms  are  the  sails.  The  wind  turns  them  round. 
And  what  is  a  windmill  for  ?  It  is  to  grind  corn.  We  could  have 
no  bread,  if  the  corn  were  not  ground. — Barbauld. 

LESSON    II. 

Here  is  a  r*ver;  how  shall  we  do  to  get  over  it?  Why,  see  how 
the  ducks  do !  they  swim  over.  But  I  cannot  swim.  Then  thou 
must  learn  to  swim,  I  oelieve :  it  is  too  wide  to  jump  over.  O,  there 
is  a  bridge !  somebody  has  made  a  bridge  for  us,  quite  over  the 
river.  That  somebody  was  very  clever  too.  I  wonder  how  he 
made  it.     I  am  sure  I  could  not  have  made  such  a  bridge. 

LESSON   III. 

Now  we  are  come  among  a  great  number  of  trees — more  trees 
than  there  are  in  the  orchard,  by  a  great  many,  and  taller  trees. 
There  is  oak,  and  ash,  and  elm.  This  is  a  wood.  What  great 
boughs  the  trees  have!  like  thick  arms.  The  sun  cannot  shine 
among  the  trees,  they  are  so  thick.  Look  !  there  is  a  squirrel,  jump- 
ing from  one  tree  to  an  other.  He  is  very  nimble.  And,  hark !  I 
hear  the  voice  of  the  cuckoo.    Barbauld. 

LESSON    IV. 

Hail,  beauteous  stranger  of  the  wood, 

Attendant  on  the  spring ! 
Now  Heav'n  repairs  thy  rural  seat, 

And  woods  thy  welcome  sing. 

Soon  as  the  daisy  decks  the  green, 

Thy  certain  voice  we  hear ; 
Hast  thou  a  star  to  guide  thy  path, 

Or  mark  the  rolling  year  ? 

lesson  v. 

Delightful  visitant !  with  thee 

I  hail  the  time  of  flowers, 
When  heav'n  is  fill'd  with  music  sweet 

Of  J>irds  among  the  bowers. 

The  school-boy,  wandering  in  the  wood 

To  pull  the  flow'rs  so  gay, 
Oft  starts  thy  curious  vcice  to  hear, 

And  imitates  thy  lay. 

LESSON    VI. 

Soon  as  the  pea  puts  on  the  bloom 

Thou  fliest  the  vocal  vale, 
An  annual  guest  in  other  lands, 

An  other  spring  to  hail. 


64  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Sweet  bird  !  thy  bow'r  is  ever  green. 
Thy  sky  is  ever  clear : 

Thou  hast  no  sorrow  in  thy  song, 
No  winter  in  thy  year ! — Logan. 


QUESTIONS  ON  ETYMOLOGY. 

LESSON  I. — PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

Of  what  does  Etymology  treat? 
How  many  parts  of  speech  are  there?  name  them. 
What  is  an  article  ?  and  what  are  the  examples  ? 
What  is  a  noun?  and  what  are  the  examples? 
What  is  an  adjective?  and  what  are  the  examples? 
What  is  a  pronoun  ?  and  what  are  the  examples  ? 
What  is  a  verb  ?  and  what  are  the  examples  ? 
What  is  a  participle  ?  and  what  are  the  examples  ? 
What  is  an  adverb  ?  and  what  are  the  examples  ? 
What  is  a  conjunction  ?  and  what  are  the  examples  ? 
What  is  a  preposition  ?  and  what  are  the  examples  ? 
What  is  an  interjection  ?  and  what  are  the  examples  1 

LESSON    II. — PARSING. 

What  is  Parsing  ? 

What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  first  chapter  for  parsing? 

How  is  the  following  example  parsed  ?  "  Bring  a  long  ladder,  ana 

set  it  up  against  the  tree." 

[Now  parse,  in  like  manner,  the  six  lessons  of  the  First  Chapter.! 

LESSON    III. — ARTICLES. 

JVTiat  is  an  Article  ? 

How  many  articles  are  there  ?    Name  them. 

Are  an  and  a  different  articles,  or  the  same  ? 

When  should  an  be  used  ?  and  when  a  ?    Give  the  examples. 

Repeat  the  alphabet  with  an  or  a  before  each  letter. 

Name  the  parts  of  speech  with  an  or  a  before  each  name 

How  are  the  two  articles  distinguished  ? 

Which  is  the  definite  article,  and  what  does  it  denote  ? 

Which  is  the  indefinite  article,  and  what  does*it  denote  ? 

LESSON    IV. — NOUNS. 

What  is  a  Noun  ? 

Into  what  general  classes  are  nouns  divided  ? 

What  is  a  proper  noun  ?  a  common  noun  ? 

What  particular  classes  are  included  among  common  nouns  rt 

What  is  a  collective  noun  ? — an  abstract  noun  ? — &  participial  i  oun  i 

What  modifications  have  nouns  ? 

Wrhat  are  Persons  in  Grammar  ? 

How  many  persons  are  there,  and  what  are  they  ca-.ed  ? 

What  is  the  first  person? — the  second  person  ? — the  third  person  1 


ETYMOLOGY.  65 

What  aie  Numbers  in  grammar? 

How  many  numbers  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 
What  is  the  singular  number  ■?— the  plural  number  ? 
How  is  the  plural  number  of  nouns  regularly  formed  ? 

LESSON    V. — NOUNS. 

What  are  Genders  in  grammar  ? 

How  many  genders  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 

What  is  the  masculine  gender? — the  feminine?— the  neuter? 

What  are  Cases  in  grammar  ? 

How  many  cases  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 

What  is  the  nominative  case  ? 

What  is  the  subject  of  a  verb? 

What  is  the  possessive  case  ? 

How  is  the  possessive  case  of  nouns  formed  ? 

What  is  the  objective  case  ? 

What  is  the  object  of  a  verb,  participle,  or  preposition  ? 

What  is  the  declension  of  a  noun? 

How  do  you  decline  the  nouns,  friend,  man,  fox,  andfy? 

LESSON   VI. — PARSING. 

What  is  required  of  the  pupil,  in  the  second  chapter  for  parsing  ? 

How  is  the  following  example  parsed  ?     "  The  horse  runs  swiftly." 

[Now  parse,in  like  manner, the  four  lessons  of  the  Second  Chapter.'] 

LESSON   VII. — ADJECTIVES. 

What  is  an  Adjective  ? 

Into  Avhat  classes  may  adjectives  be  divided  ? 

What  is  a  common  adjective  ? — a  proper  adjective  ?^-a  numeral  ad- 
jective ? — a  pronominal  adjective  ? — a  participial  adjective  ? — a 
compound  adiective  ? 

What  modifications  have  adjectives  ? 

What  is  Comparison  in  grammar? 

How  many,  and  what  are  the  degrees  of  comparison  1 

What  is  the  positive  degree  ? — the  comparative  degree  1 — the  super- 
lative degree  ? 

What  adjectives  cannot  be  compared  ? 

What  adjectives  are  compared  by  means  of  adverbs? 

How  are  adjectives  regularly  compared  1 

How  do  you  compare  great,  wide,  and  hot  ? 

Compare  good,  bad,  or  ill  ;  much,  many  ;  far,  and  late. 

LESSON    VIII. — PARSING. 

What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  third  chapter  for  parsing? 
How  is  the  following  example  parsed  1  "  Take  better  care." 
[Now  parse,  in  like  manner,  the  four  lessons  of  the  Third  Chapter :] 

LESSON   IX. — PRONOUNS. 

What  is  a  Pronoun  ? 


66  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

How  are  pronouns  divided  ? 

What  is  a  personal  pronoun  ? 

How  many,  and  what  are  the  simple  personal  pronouns ! 

What  is  a  relative  pronoun  ? 

Mention  the  relative  pronouns. 

What  is  an  interrogative  pronoun  ? 

Mention  the  interrogative  pronouns. 

What  modifications  have  pronouns  ? 

What  is  the  declension  of  a  pronoun  ? 

How  do  you  decline  the  pronouns  /,  thou,  he,  she,  and  it  ? 

Explain  the  compound  personal  pronouns. 

How  do  you  decline  who,  which,  what,  and  that? 

LESSON   X. — PARSING. 

What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  fourth  chapter  for  parsing  1 
How  is  the  following  example  parsed  ?  "  She  purchased  it." 
[Now  parse,  in  like  manner,  the  four  lessons  of  the  Fourth  Cfiapter*] 

LESSON   XI. — VERBS. 

What  is  a  Verb  ? 

How  are  verbs  divided,  with  respect  to  their  form  ? 

What  is  a  regular  verb  ? — an  irregular  verb  ? 

How  are  verbs  divided,  with  respect  to  their  signification? 

What  is  an  active-transitive  verb  ? — an  active-intransitive  verb !— a 

passive  verb ? — a  neuter  verb  ? 
What  modifications  have  verbs  ? 
What  are  Moods  ? 

How  many  moods  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 
What  is  the  infinitive  mood  ?— the  indicative  mood  ? — the  potential 

mood  ? — the  subjunctive  mood  ? — the  imperative  mood  ? 

LESSON    XII. — VERBS. 

What  are  Tenses] 

How  many  tenses  are  there,  and  what  are  they  called  ? 

What  is  the  present  tense  ? — the  imperfect  tense  1 — the  perfect  tense  i 

— the  pluperfect  tense  ? — the  first-future  tense  ? — the  secoiul-fuhr 

tense  ? 
What  are  the  Person  and  Number  of  a  verb? 
How  many  persons  and  numbers  are  there? 
What  is  the  Conjugation  of  a  verb  ? 

What  are  the  principal  parts  in  the  conjugation  of  a  verb  ? 
What  is  a  verb  called  which  wants  some  of  these  parts  ? 
What  is  an  auxiliary  ? 
What  verbs  are  auxiliaries? 

LESSON   XIII. — CONJUGATION. 

Conjugate  the  regular  active  verb  Love  throughout. 

LESSON    XIV. — SYNOPSIS. 

Give  a  synopsis  of  Love  in  each  person  and  number. 


ETYMOLOGY.  67 


LESSON    XV. — THE    VERB    SEE. 


Conjugate  the  irregular  active  verb  See  throughout 
Give  a  synopsis  of  See  in  each  person  and  number. 

LESSON   XVI. — THE    VERB    BE. 

Conjugate  the  irregular  neuter  verb  Be  throughout. 
Give  a  synopsis  of  Be  in  each  person  and  number. 

LESSON    XVII. — COMPOUND. 

How  may  active  and  neuter  verbs  be  otherwise  conjugated? 
Conjugate  the  active  verb  Read  in  the  compound  form. 
Give  a  synopsis  in  each  person  and  number. 

LESSON   XVIII. — PASSIVES. 

How  are  passive  verbs  formed  ? 

Conjugate  the  passive  verb  Be  Loved  throughout. 

Give  a  synopsis  in  each  person  and  number. 

How  is  a  verb  conjugated  negatively  ? 

How  is  a  verb  conjugated  interrogatively  ? 

How  is  a  verb  conjugated  interrogatively  and  negatively  ? 

LESSON  XIX. — IRREGULARS. 

What  is  an  irregular  verb  ? 

Learn  the  principal  parts  of  all  the  irregular  verba. 

LESSON   XX. — DEFECTIVES. 

What  is  a  defective  verb  ? 

What  verbs  are  defective  ?  and  wherein  are  they  so  ? 

LESSON    XXI. — PARTICIPLES. 

What  is  a  Participle? 

How  many  participles  have  verbs?  and  what  are  they  ? 

Which  or  what  is  the  imperfect  participle  ? 

Which  or  what  is  the  perfect  participle  ? 

Which  or  what  is  the  pluperfect  participle  ? 

Is  the  first  or  imperfect  participle  always  formed  in  one  way  only  1 

Is  the  second  or  perfect  participle  always  formed  in  one  way  only  . 

Is  the  third  or  pluperfect  participle  always  formed  in  one  way  only  ? 

LESSON    XXII. — PARSING. 

What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  fifth  chapter  for  parsing  ? 
How  is  the  following  example  parsed  1     "He  speaks  fluently." 
[Now  parse,  in  like  manner,  the  six  lessons  of  the  Fifth  Chapter.] 

LESSON   XXIII. — ADVERBS    AND    CONJUNCTIONS. 

What  is  an  Adverb? 

To  what  general  classes  may  adverbs  be  reduced  ? 

How  may  adverbs  of  time  be  known  ? 

How  may  adverbs  of  place  be  known  ? 


f)S  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

How  may  adverbs  of  degree  be  known? 

How  may  adverbs  of  manner  be  known  1 

What  are  conjunctive  adverbs  ? 

Have  adverbs  any  modifications  ? 

Compare  well,  badly  or  ill,  little,  much,  far  and  forth. 

What  is  a  Conjunction  ? 

How  are  conjunctions  divided  1 

What  is  a  copulative  conjunction  ? 

What  is  a  disjunctive  conjunction  ? 

WThat  are  the  principal  conjunctions? 

LESSON    XXIV. — PREPOSITIONS   AND    INTERJECTIONS. 

What  is  a  Preposition  ? 

What  are  the  principal  prepositions  1 

What  is  an  Interjection  ? 

How  are  the  interjections  arranged  ? 

What  are  the  interjections  of  joy? — of  sorrow  ] — of  wonde.*  t — of 
wishing  or  earnestness? — of  pain? — of  contempt? — of  aversion  if 
— of  calling  aloud  1 — of  exultation  ? — of  laughter  1 — of  saluta- 
tion 1 — of  calling  to  attention  ? — of  calling  to  silence  ?-  of  sui  - 
prise  ? — of  languor  ? — of  stopping. 

LESSON   XXV. — PARSING. 

What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  sixth  chapter  for  parsing? 

[Now  parse,  alter  the  models  previously  given,  the  six  lessons  of 
the  Sixth  Chapte?.] 


PART   III. 

SYNTAX. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  govern- 
ment, and  arrangement,  of  words  in  sentences. 

The  relation  of  words,  is  their  dependence,  or 
connexion,  according  to  the  sense. 

The  agreement  of  words,  is  their  similarity  in  per- 
son, number,  gender,  case,  mood,  tense,  or  form. 

The  government  of  words,  is  that  power  which 
one  word  has  over  an  other,  to  cause  it  to  assume 
some  particular  modification. 

The  arrangement  of  words,  is  their  collocation, 
or  relative  position,  in  a  sentence. 

A  sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words,  making 
complete  sense, ;  nd  always  containing  a  nominative 
and  a  verb  ;  as,  A  Reward  sweetens  labour." 

The  principal  parts  of  a  sentence,  are  usually 
three  ;  namely,  tae  subject,  or  nominative, — the 
verb — and,  (if  the  verb  be  transitive,)  the  object 
governed  by  the  verb  ;  as,  "  Crimes  deserve  punish- 
ment." 

The  other  parts  depend  upon  these,  either  as 
primary  or  as  secondary  adjuncts ;  as,  High 
crimes  justly  deserve  very  severe  punishments." 

Sentences  are  of  two  kinds,  simple,  and  com- 
pound. 

A  simple  sentence,  is  a  sentence  which  conveys 
but  one  affirmation  or  negation  5  as,  "  Man  is  mor- 
tal."— "  Charity  is  not  easily  provoked." 

A  compound  sentence,  is  a  sentence  which  may 
be  resolved  into  two  or  more  simple  ones  5  as, 
"  Idleness  produces  want,  vice,  and  misery." 

A  clause,  or  member,  is  a  subdivision  of  a  com- 
pound sentence  5  and  is  itself  a  sentence,  eii^er 
simple  or  compound. 

A  phrase  is  two  or  more  words  which  express 


70  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

some  relation  of  ideas,  but  no  entire  proposition  3 
as,  "By  the  means  appointed." — "To  be  plain 
with  you." 

Words  that  are  omitted  by  ellipsis,  and  that 
are  necessarily  understood  in  order  to  complete 
die  construction,  must  be  supplied  in  parsing. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX, 


WITH    EXAMPLES    AND    OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Of  Relation  and  Agreement. 

RULE    I. ARTICLES. 

Articles  relate  to  the  nouns  which  they  limit : 
as,  "At  a  little  distance  from  the  ruins  of  the 
abbey,  stands  an  aged  elm." 

Obs.  1.  Articles  often  relate  to  nouns  understood;  as,  "The  [rit?er] 
Thames." — "  Pliny  the  younger"  \inan\ — "  The  honourable  [60^3/J 
the  Legislature." — The  animal  \world~]^ and  the  vegetable  world." — 
"  The  Old  [Testament']  and  the  New  Testament" 

Obs.  2.  Articles  belong  before  their  nouns ;  but  the  definite  article 
and  an  adjective  seem  sometimes  to  be  placed  after  the  noim  to  which 
they  both  relate:  as,  "Section  the  fourth." — "Henry  the  Eighth." 
Such  examples,  however,  may  be  supposed  elliptical ;  and,  if  they 
are  so,  an  article  cannot  be  placed  after  its  noun,  nor  can  two  arti- 
cles ever  relate  to  one  and  the  same  noun. 

Obs.  3.  The  definite  article  is  often  prefixed  to  comparatives  and 
superlatives  ;  and  its  effect  is,  (as  Murray  observes,)  "  to  mark  the 
degree  the  more  strongly,  and  to  define  it  the  more  precisely:"  as, 
"  The  oftener  I  see  him  the  more  I  respect  him." — "  A  constitution 
the  most  fit." — "  A  claim  the  strongest,  and  the  most  easily  compre- 
hended."— In  these  cases  the  article  seems  to  relate  only  to  the 
adjective  or  adverb  following  it ;  but  after  the  adjective,  the  noun 
may  be  supplied. 

Obs.  4.  The  article  the  is  applied  to  nouns  of  both  numbers :  as. 
The  man,  the  men. —  The  good  boy,  the  good  boys. 

Obs.  5.  An  or  a  implies  one,  and  is  prefixed  to  nouns  of  the  sin- 
gular number  only ;  as,  A  man,  a  good  boy. 

Obs.  6.  An  or  a  is  sometimes  prefixed  to  an  adjective  of  number, 
when  the  noun  following  is  plural :  as,  A  few  cfays — a  hundred 
eheer  .  Here  also  the  article  relates  only  to  the  adjective  ;  unless 
fev,  hundred,  &c.  are  nouns  with  of  understood  after  them. 

Obs.  7.  A,  as  prefixed  to  participles  in  ing,  or  used  in  composition, 
is  a  preposition  ;  being,  probably,  the  Freru  h  d,  signifying  to,  at,  on, 


SYNTAX.  71 

in,  or  of;  as,  "  He  is  gone  a  hunting." — "  They  burst  out  a  laugh- 
ing."— "  She  lies  a-bed  airday." 

Obs.  8.  An  is  sometimes  a  conjunction,  signifying  if;  as. 

"  Nay,  an  thou'lt  mouthe,  I'll  rant  as  well  as  thou." — Shak. 

RULE    II. NOMINATIVES. 

A  Noun  or  a  pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a 
verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case :  as, 
"  I  know  thou  sayst  it :  says  thy  life  the  same  V9 

Obs.  1.  Every  nominative  belongs  to  some  verb,  unless  it  be  put 
in  apposition  according  to  Rule  3d,  after  a  verb  according  to  Rule 
21st,  or  absolute  according  to  Rule  25th. 

Obs.  2.  The  subject  or  nominative,  is  generally  placed  before  the 
verb  ;  as,  "  Peace  dawned  upon  his  mind." — "  What  is  written  in 
the  law  ?" 

Obs.  3.  But,  in  the  following  cases,  the  subject  is  placed  after 
the  verb,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary : 

1.  When  a  question  is  asked  without  an  interrogative  pronoun  in 
the  nominative  case  ;  as,  Shall  mortals  be  implacable  ?" — "  What 
art  thou  doing  ?" 

2.  When  the  verb  is  in  the  imperative  mood  ;  as,  "  Go  thou." 

3.  When  an  earnest  wish,  or  other  strong  feeling,  is  expressed ; 
as,  "  May  she  be  happy  !"— -"  How  were  we  struck !" —  Young. 

4.  When  a  supposition  is  made  without  a  conjunction ;  as,  "  Were 
it  true,  it  would  not  injure  us." 

5.  When  neither  or  nor,  signifying  and  not,  precedes  the  verb ;  as, 
"  This  was  his  fear  ;  nor  was  his  apprehension  groundless." 

6.  When,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  some  word  or  words  are  placed 
before  the  verb,  which  more  naturally  come  after  it ;  as,  "  Here  am 
I." — "Narrow  is  the  way." — "  Silver  and  gold  have  /none." 

7.  When  the  verb  has  no  regimen,  and  is  itself  emphatical ;  as, 
"  Echo  the  mountains  round." —  T/i&mson. 

8.  When  the  verbs  say,  think,  reply,  and  the  like,  introduce  the 
parts  of  a  dialogue ;  as,  " '  Son  of  affliction,'  said  Omar,  l  who  art 
thou  V     '  My  name,'  replied  the  strange) ,  '  is  Hassan.'  " — Johnson. 

9.  When  the  adverb  there  precedes  the  verb  j  as,  "  There  lived  a 
man."— Montgomery. 

RULE    III. APPOSITION. 

A  noun  or  personal  Pronoun,  used  to  explain  a 
preceding  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put,  by  apposition, 
*n  the  same  case  :  as, 

"  But  he,  our  gracious  Master,  kind  as  just, 
u  Knowing  our  frame,  remembers  we  are  dust." 


72  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

V 

Obs.  1.  Apposition  is  the  using  of  different  words  or  appellations 
to  designate  the  same  thing.  Apposition  also  denotes  the  relation 
which  exists  between  the  words  which  are  so  employed.  In  parsing, 
the  rule  of  apposition  should  be  applied  only  to  the  explanatory 
term;  for  the  case  of  the  principal  words  depends  on  its  relation  to 
the  rest  of  the  sentence,  and  comes  under  some  other  rale.  This 
rule  involves  a  variety  of  forms  of  expression,  as  may  be  seen  by  the 
following  examples :  "  I,  thy  schoolmaster,  have  made  thee  profit."— 
Shak.  "  I,  even  7,  am  he." — Isaiah,  xliii.  L<  I  am  the  Lord,  your 
Holy  One,  the  Creator  of  Israel,  your  King." — Id.  "  They  shall 
every  man  turn  to  his  own  people." — Id.  "  Behold,  I  create  Jeru- 
salem a  rejoicing,  and  her  people  a.  joy." — Id.  "  Righteousness  and 
peace  have  kissed  each  other." — Psalms.  "  That  ye  love  one  an 
other."— N.  Test.  "  Be  ye  helpers  one  of  an  other."— Id.  "  To 
make  him  king." — Id.     "  With  modesty  thy  guide." — Pope. 

Obs.  2.  The  explanatory  word  is  sometimes  placed  first,  especially 
among  the  poets  ;  as, 

"From  bright'ning  fields  of  ether  fair  disclos'd, 

"  Child  of  the  sun.  refulgent  Summer  comes." — Thomson. 

Obs.  3.  The  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons,  are  often 
prefixed  to  nouns  merely  to  distinguish  their  person.  In  this  case  of 
apposition,  the  words  are  not  separated  by  a  comma ;  and  either  of 
them  may  be  taken  as  the  explanatory  term :  as,  "  I  John  saw  these 
things." — "  His  praise,  ye  brooks,  attune."  So  also,  when  two  or 
more  nouns  form  one  proper  name :  as,  John  Home  Tooke. 

Obs.  4.  When  two  or  more  nouns  of  the  possessive  case  are  put  in 
apposition,  the  possessive  termination  added  to  one,  denotes  the  case 
of  both  or  all ;  as,  "  His  brother  Philip's  wife." — "  John  Baptist's 
head" — "  At  my  friend  Johnson's,  the  bookseller."  By  a  repetition 
of  the  possessive  sign,  a  distinct  governing  noun  is  implied,  and  the 
apposition  is  destroyed. 

Obs.  5.  When  an  object  acquires  a  new  name  or  character  from 
the  action  of  a  verb,  the  new  appellation  is  put  in  apposition  with 
the  object  of  the  active  verb,  and  in  the  nominative  after  the  pas- 
sive ;  as,  "  They  named  the  child  John — The  child  was  named 
John." — "  They  elected  him  president — He  was  elected  president  * 


RULE    IV. ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns :  as, u  He 
is  a  wise  man,  though  he  is  young. 

Obs.  1.  When  an  adjective  follows  a  verb,  it  generally  relates  to 
the  subject  going  before ;  as,  "  Iartiglad  that  the  door  is  made  icide?' 

Obs.  2.  An  adjective  sometimes  relates  to  a  phrase  or  sentence^ 
which  is  substituted  for  a  noun ;  as,  "  That  he  shoidd  refuse,  is  no* 
strange." 


SYNTAX.  73 

Obs.  3.  Adjectives  preceded  by  the  definite  article,  are  often  used, 
by  ellipsis,  as  nouns.  They  designate  those  classes  of  objects  which 
are  characterized  by  the  qualities  they  express.  They  are  mostly 
confined  to  the  plural  number,  and  refer  to  persons,  places,  or  things 
understood ;  as,  "  The  good  [persons']  must  merit  God's  peculiar 
care." — Pope. 

Obs.  4.  By  an  ellipsis  of  the  noun,  an  adjective  with  a  preposition 
before  it,  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  an  adverb :  as,  "In  particular;" 
that  is,  in  a  particular  manner  ;  equivalent  to  particularly.  In  pars- 
ing, supply  the  ellipsis.     [See  Obs.  2d,  under  Rule  xxii.] 

Obs.  5.  Adjectives  that  imply  unity  or  plurality,  must  agree  with 
their  nouns  in  number ;  as,  That  sort,  those  sorts. 

Obs.  6.  When  the  adjective  is  necessarily  plural,  the  noun  should 
be  made  so  too;  as,  "  Twenty  pounds  ;"  not,  "  Twenty  pound."  In 
some  peculiar  phrases  this  rule  appears  to  be  disregarded;  as, 
"  Twenty  sail  of  vessels," — "  A  hundred  head  of  cattle," — "  Two 
hundred  pennyworth  of  bread." 

Obs.  7.  To  denote  a  collective  number,  a  singular  adjective  may 
precede  a  plural  one ;  as,  One  hundred  men," — "  Every  six  weeks." 

Obs.  8.  To  denote  plurality,  the  adjective  many  may,  in  like  man- 
ner, precede  an  or  a,  with  a  singular  noun ;  as, 

"  Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen." — Gray. 

Obs.  9.  The  noun  means,  and  some  others,  have  the  same  form 
in  both  numbers ;  they  should  therefore  be  used  with  an  adjective  ot 
the  singular  or  the  plural  number,  as  the  sense  requires :  as,  "  By 
this  means  they  bear  witness  to  each  other." — Burke.  This  mean 
is  not  in  good  use. 

Obs.  10.  The  comparative  degree  can  only  be  used  in  reference 
to  two  objects,  or  classes  of  objects ;  the  superlative  compares  one 
or  more  things  with  all  others  of  the  same  class,  whether  few  or 
many ;  as,  "  Edward  is  taller  than  James ;  he  is  the  largest  of  my 
scholars." 

RULE    V. PRONOUNS. 

A  Pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  or 
the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  represents,  in  per- 
son, number,  and  gender :  as, "  This  is  the  friend 
of  whom,  I  spoke ;  he  has  just  arrived." — "  This 
is  the  book  which  I  bought j  it  is  an  excellent 
work." — u  Ye,  therefore,  who  love  mercy,  teach 
your  sons  to  love  it  too." — Cowper. 

Obs.  1.  When  the  antecedent  is  used  figuratively,  the  pronoun 
o :V».  agrees  with  it  in  the  figurative,  and  not  in  the  literal  sense; 
as,  Grim  darkness  furls  his  leaden  shroud."  [See  Syllepsis  among 
the  figures  of  Syntax.] 

Obs.  2.  The  pronoun  we  is  used  by  the  speaker  to  represent  him- 
self and  others,  and  is  therefore  plural.    But  it  is  sometimes  used. 

7 


74  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

by  a  sort  01  fiction,  instead  of  the  singular,  to  intimate  that  the 
speaker  or  writer  is  not  alone  in  his  opinions. 

Obs.  3.  The  pronoun  you,  though  originally  and  properly  plural, 
is  now  generally  applied  alike  to  one  person  or  more.  [See  Inst. 
E.  Gram.  p.  56  and  137.] 

Obs.  4.  A  pronoun  sometimes  represents  a  phrase  or  sentence,  or 
a  quality  expressed  before  by  an  adjective.  In  this  case,  the  pro- 
noun is  always  in  «ne  third  person,  singular,  neuter :  as,  "  She  is  very 
hayidsome  ;  and  she  hab  the  misfortune  to  know  it? 

Obs.  5.  The  proi  oun  it  is  often  used  without  a  definite  reference 
to  any  antecedent ;  and,  still  more  frequently,  it  refers  to  something 
mentioned  in  the  si  bsequent  part  of  the  sentence.  This  pronoun  is 
a  necessary  expleti  e  at  the  commencement  of  a  sentence,  in  which 
the  verb  is  followed  bv  a  clause  which,  by  transposition,  may  be 
made  the  subject  to  tr  verb ;  as,  "  It  is  impossible  to  please  every 
one." — "  It  was  requisite  that  the  papers  should  be  sent." 

Obs.  6.  In  familiar  language,  the  relative  in  the  objective  case  is 
frequently  understood;  as,  "  Here  is  the  letter  [which]  I  received.' 
The  omission  of  the  relative  in  the  nominative  case,  is  inelegant , 
as,  "  This  is  the  worst  thing  [that]  could  happen." 

RULE    VI. PRONOUNS. 

When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun  con- 
veying the  idea  of  plurality,  the  Pronoun  must 
agree  with  it,  in  the  plural  number  •  as,  "  The 
council  were  divided  in  their  sentiments." 

Obs.  1.  A  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  unity  requires  a 
pronoun  in  the  third  person,  singular,  neuter;  as,  "The  nationwiW 
enforce  its  laws." 

Obs.  2.  Most  collective  nouns  of  the  neuter  gender,  may  take  the 
regular  plural  form,  and  be  represented  by  a  pronoun  in  the  third 
person,  plural,  neuter ;  as,  "  The  nations  will  enforce  their  laws." 

RULE    VII. PRONOUNS. 

When  a  Pronoun  has  two  or  more  antecedents 
connected  by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the 
plural  number :  as,  u  James  and  John  will  favour 
us  with  their  company." 

Obs.  I.  When  the  antecedents  are  of  different  persons,  the  c,v« 
Derson  is  preferred  to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third  -,  aa. 
1  John,  and  thou,  and  I,  are  attached  to  ou,r  country." — "  John  and 
thou  are  attached  to  your  country." 

OJ)s.  2.  The  gender  of  pronouns,  except  in  the  third  person  sin- 


SYNTAX.  75 

scalar,  is  distinguished  only  by  their  antecedents.  In  expressing 
that  of  a  pronoun  which  has  antecedents  of  different  genders,  the 
masculine  should  be  preferred  to  the  feminine,  and  the  feminine  ta 
the  neuter. 

RULE    VIII. PRONOUNS. 

When  a  Pronoun  has  two  or  more  singular 
antecedents  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree 
with  them  in  the  singular  number:  as,  "James 
or  John  will  favor  us  with  his  company." 

Obs.  When  antecedents  of  different  persons,  numbers,  or  gen- 
ders, are  connected  by  or  or  nor,  they  cannot  be  represented  by  a 
pronoun  that  is  not  applicable  to  each  of  them. 

RULE    IX. — VERBS. 

A  Verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  or  nomina- 
tive, in  person  and  number :  as,  "  I  know ;  thou 
knows  t,  or  Jcnowest  $  he  knows,  or  knoweth? 
"  The  bird  flies  j  the  birds  fly? 

Obs.  1.  The  adjuncts  of  the  nominative,  do  not  control  its  agree- 
ment with  the  verb ;  as,  "  Six  months'  interest  was  due." — "  The 
propriety  of  these  rules  is  evident/' — "  The  mill,  with  all  its  appur- 
tenances, was  destroyed." 

Obs.  2.  The  infinitive  mood,  a  phrase,  or  a  sentence,  is  sometimes 
the  subject  to  a  verb :  a  subject  of  this  kind,  however  composed,  if 
it  is  taken  as  one. whole,  requires  a  verb  in  the  third  person,  singu- 
lar ;  as,  "  To  lie  is  base." — "  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant." — "  That 
you  have  violated  the  law,  is  evident." — "  For  what  purpose  they 
embarked,  is  not  yet  known." 

Obs.  3.  A  neuter  verb  between  two  nominatives  should  be  made 
to  agree  with  that  which  precedes  it ;  as,  "  Words  are  wind  :"  except 
when  the  terms  are  rhetorically  transposed,  and  the  proper  subject 
is  put  after  the  verb  ;  as,  "  His  pavilion  were  dark  waters  and  thick 
clouds."—"  Who  art  thou  ?" 

Obs.  4.  When  the  verb  has  different  forms,  that  form  should  be 
adopted  which  is  the  most  consistent  with  present  and  reputable 
usage,  in  the  style  employed:  thus,  to  say  familiarly.  "The  clock 
hath  stricken,"— ■"  Thou  laugh edst  and  talkedM,  when  thou  onsrhtest 
to  have  been  silent,"— "He  readeth  and  writeth,  but  he  doth  not 
cipher,"— would  be  no  better,  than  to  use,  dont,  wont,  cant,  thant, 
and  didnt,  in  preaching. 

Obs.  5.  The  nominative  to  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mood,  ia 
generally  omitted;  as,  "  Guide  [thou']  my  lonely  way."  Willi  the 
verb  in  all  the  other  personal  tenses,  the  nominative  must  be  ex- 


76  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

pressed :  except  where  two  or  more  verbs  are  connected  in  the  same 
construction ;  as,  "  They  bud,  blow,  wither,  fall,  and  die." 

RULE    X. VERBS." 

When  the  nominative  is  a  collective  noun  con- 
veying the  idea  of  plurality,  the  Verb  must  agree 
with  it  in  the  plural  number :  as,  "  The  council 
were  divided." 

Obs.  A  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  unity,  requires  a 
verb  in  the  third  person,  singular ;  and  generally  admits  also  the 
regular  plural  construction  :  as,  "  His  army  was  defeated." — "  His 
armies  were  defeated." 

RULE    XI. VERBS. 

When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  nominatives 
connected  by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the 
plural  number :  as, 

"  Judges  and  senates  have  been  bought  for  gold  ; 
Esteem  and  love  were  never  to  be  sold." — Pope, 

Obs.  1.  The  conjunction  is  sometimes  understood;  as, 
"  Art,  empire,  earth  itself,  to  change  are  doomed." — Beattie. 

Obs.  2.  When  the  nouns  connected  are  descriptive  of  one  and  the 
same  thing,  they  are  in  apposition,  and  do  not  require  a  plural  verb : 
as,  "This  philosopher  and  poet  was  banished  from  his  country." 

Obs.  3.  When  the  same  nominative  is  repeated,  the  words  are  in 
apposition,  and  do  not  require  a  plural  verb :  as, 

'^Love,  and  love  only,  is  the  loan  for  love." —  Young. 

Obs.  4.  When  the  verb  separates  its  nominatives,  it  agrees  with 
that  which  precedes  it,  and  is  understood  to  the  rest ;  as, 

"  Forth  in  the  pleasing  spring 

Thy  beauty  walks,  thy  tenderness,  and  love." — Thomson. 

Obs.  5.  When  two  subjects  are  connected,  one  of  which  is  taken 
affirmatively,  and  the  other  negatively,  they  belong  to  different  prop- 
ositions ;  and  the  verb  or  pronoun  must  agree  with  the  affirmative 
subject,  and  be  understood  to  the  other :  as,  "  Diligent  industry,  and 
not  mean  savings,  produces  honourable  competence."  So  also  when 
subjects  are  connected  by  as  well  as,  but,  or  save  ;  as,  "  Caesar,  as 
well  as  Cicero,  was  admired  for  his  eloquence." — "  Nothing  but 
waitings  was  heard." — "  None  but  thou  can  aid  us." — "  No  mortal 
man,  save  he,  had  e'er  survived." — Scott. 


SYNTAX.  77 

Obs.  6.  When  the  subjects  are  severally  preceded  by  the  adjec- 
tive each,  every,  or  no,  they  are  taken  separately,  and  require  a  verb 
and  pronoun  in  the  singular  number ;  as, 

"  And  every  sense,  and  every  heart,  is  joy." — Thomson. 
"  Each  beast,  each  insect,  happy  in  its  own. — Pope. 

Obs.  7.  Two  or  more  distinct  subject  phrases  connected  by  and, 
require  a  plural  verb ;  as,  "  To  be  wise  in  our  own  eyes,  to  be 
wise  in  the  opinion  of  the  world,  and  to  be  wise  in  the  sight  of  our 
Creator,  are  three  things  so  very  different  as  rarely  to  coincide." — 
Blair. 

RULE    XII. VERBS. 

When  a  Verb  has  two  or  more  singular  nomi- 
natives connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree 
with  them  in  the  singular  number  :  as,  w  Fear  or 
jealousy  affects  him." 

Obs.  1.  When  a  verb  has  nominatives  of  different  persons  or 
numbers,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  that  which  is 
placed  next  to  it,  and  be  understood  to  the  rest  in  the  person  and 
number  required ;  as,  "  Neither  he  nor  his  brothers  were  there. — 
''  Neither  you  nor  I  am  concerned. 

Obs.  2.  But  when  the  nominatives  require  different  forms  of  the 
verb,  it  is,  in  general,  more  elegant  to  express  the  verb,  or  its  auxil- 
iary, in  connection  with  each  of  them ;  as,  "  Either  thou  art  to 
olame,  or  I  am." — "  Neither  were  their  numbers,  nor  was  their  des- 
tination known." 

Obs.  3.  The  speaker  should  generally  mention  himself  last ;  as, 
"Thou  or  /  must  go." — "He  then  addressed  his  discourue  tu  my 
father  and  me." — But  in  confessing  a  fault  he  may  assume  the  first 
place  ;  as,  "  /  and  Robert  did  it." — M.  Edgeworth. 

Obs.  4.  Two  or  more  distinct  subject  phrases  connected  by  or 
or  nor,  require  a  singular  verb  ;  as,  "  That  a  drunkard  shotdd  be 
poor,  or  that  a  fop  should  be  ignorant,  is  not  strange." 

RULE    XIII. VERBS. 

When  verbs  are  connected  by  a  conjunction, 
they  must  either  agree  in  mood,  tense,  and  form, 
or  have  separate  nominatives  expressed :  as,  u  He 
himself  held  the  plough,  sowed  the  grain,  and  at- 
tended the  reapers." — u  She  was  proud,  but  she 
is  now  humble." 

Obs.  1.  From  this  rule  there  are  many  exceptions.  We  may, 
without  repeating  the  nominative,  connect  the  present,  the  perfect, 
and  the  first  future  tense  of  the  indicative  mood ;  the  corresponding 
tenses  of  the  indicative  and  potential  moods ;  the  affirmative  and 


78  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

the  negative  form ;  or  the  simple  and  the  compound  form.    But  the 
simple  verb  must,  in  general,  be  placed  first;  as, 

"  What  nothing  earthly  gives  or  can  destroy" — Pope. 
*  Some  are,  and  must  be  greater  than  the  rest." — Id. 
"  Plays  round  the  head,  but  comes  not  to  the  heart." — Id. 

Obs.  2.  Those  parts  which  are  common  to  several  verbs,  are  gen- 
erally expressed  to  the  first,  and  understood  to  the  rest  ;  as. 
"  Every  sincere  endeavour  to  amend  shall  be  assisted,  [shall  be] 
accepted,  and  [shall  be]  rewarded." — "  Honourably  do  the  best  you 
can"  [do]. — "He  thought  as  I  did"  [think]. — "You  have  seen  it, 
but  I  have  not"  [seenit]. — "If  you  will  go,  I  will"  [go]. 


RULE    XIV. PARTICIPLES. 

Participles  relate  to  nouns  or  pronouns,  or  are 
governed  by  prepositions :  as,  "  Elizabeth's  tutor 
at  one  time  paying  her  a  visit,  found  her  employed 
in  reading  Plato." — Hume. 

Obs.  1.  The  word  to  which  the  participle  relates,  is  sometimes 
understood ;  as,  "  Granting  this  to  be  true,  what  is  to  be  inferred 
from  it  ?"  that  is,  "  /,  granting  this  to  be  true,  ask,  what  is  to  be  in- 
ferred from  it  ?"  Some  grammarians  have  erroneously  taught  that 
such  participles  are  put  absolute. 

Obs.  2.  Participles  have  the  same  government  as  the  verbs  from 
which  they  are  derived.  The  preposition  of,  therefore,  should  not 
be  used  after  the  participle,  when  the  verb  does  not  require  it 
Thus,  in  phrases  like  the  following,  of  is  improper ;  "  Keeping  of 
one  day  in  seven." — "  By  preaching  of  repentance." — "  They  left 
beating  of  Paul." 

Obs.  3.  An  imperfect  or  a  compound  participle,  preceded  by  an 
article,  an  adjective,  or  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  possessive  case, 
becomes  a  verbal  noun,  and,  as  such,  it  cannot  govern  an  object  after 
it.  A  word  which  may  be  the  object  of  the  participle  in  its  proper 
construction  requires  the  preposition  of,  to  connect  it  with  the  ver- 
bal noun;  as,  1.  (By  the  participle,)  "By  exercising  the  body  wc 
promote  health."  2.  (By  the  verbal  noun,)  "  By  the  exercising  of 
the  body,  health  is  promoted." 

Obs.  4.  Participles  that  have  become  nouns,  may  be  used  as  such 
with  or  without  the  article.  But  we  sometimes  find  those  which  re- 
tain the  government  and  the  adjuncts  of  participles,  used  as  nouns 
before  or  after  verbs ;  as,  "  Exciting  such  disturbances,  is  unlaw- 
ful."— "  Rebellion  is  rising  against  government."  This  mungrel 
construction  is  liable  to  ambiguity,  and  ought  to  be  avoided. 

Obs.  5.  According  to  the  analogy  of  Greek  and  Latin,  there  are 
several  intransitive  verbs  alter  which  the  participle  in  ing,  relating 
to  the  nominative,  maybe  used  instead  of  the  infinitive  connected  to 


SYNTAX.  79 

the  verb  ;  as,  "  Continue  following  the  Lord  your  God." — 1  Sam. 
xii.  14.  Greek,  poreuomenoi — Latin,  sequentes.  Not  understanding 
the  nature  of  this  construction,  or  not  observing  what  verbs  admit  of 
it,  some  persons  use  the  participle  erroneously  as  the  object  of  the 
transitive  verb  ;  and  Murray  has  very  unskilfully  laid  it  down  as  a 
rule,  that  "  The  participle  with  its  adjuncts,  may  be  considered  as  a 
substantive  phrase  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  preposition 
or  verb  ;"  whereas,  he  himself  on  the  preceding  page,  had  cautioned 
the  learner  against  treating  words  in  ing,  "  as  if  they  were  of  an 
amphibious  species,  partly  nouns  and  partly  verbs" — that  is,  "partly 
nouns  and  partly  participles;"  for,  according  to  Murray,  participles 
are  verbs. 


RULE    XV. ADVERBS. 

Adverbs  relate  to  verbs,  participles,  adjectives, 
or  other  adverbs  :  as,  u  Any  passion  that  habitu- 
ally discomposes  our  temper,  or  unfits  us  for 
properly  discharging  the  duties  of  life,  has  most 
certainly  gained  a  very  dangerous  ascendency." 

Obs.  1.  The  adverb  yes,  expressing  a  simple  affirmation,  and  the 
adverb  no,  expressing  a  simple  negation,  are  always  independent. 
They  generally  answer  a  question  ;  and  are  equivalent  to  a  repeti- 
tion of  it,  in  the  form  of  an  affirmative  or  a  negative  proposition. 

Obs.  ~2.  No  is  sometimes  an  adverb  of  degree,  and,  as  such,  it 
can  relate  only  to  comparatives ;  as,  "  No  greater" — "  No  sooner." 
No,  when  prefixed  to  a  noun,  is  an  adjective  ;  as, 

"  No  clouds,  no  vapours  intervene." — Dyer. 

Obs.  3.  A  negation  in  English  admits  but  one  negative  word ;  as 
"  I  could  not  wait  any  longer," — not,  "  no  longer."  Double  nega- 
tives are  vulgar. 

Obs.  4.  The  repetition  of  a  negative  word  or  clause,  strengthens 
the  negation ;  as,  "  No,  no,  no."  But  two  negatives  in  the  same 
clause,  destroy  the  negation  and  render  the  meaning  affirmative ;  as, 
"  A or  did  they  not  perceive  their  evil  plight." — Milton.  That  is, 
they  did  perceive  it. 

Obs.  5.  By  the  customary  (but  faulty)  omission  of  the  negative 
before  but,  that  conjunction  has  acquired  the  adverbial  sense  of 
only;  and  it  may,  when  used  with  that  signification  be  called  an 
adverb.'  Thus  the  text,  "He  hath  not  grieved  me  but  in  part,"  [2 
Cor.  ii.  5.]  might  drop  the  negative  and  still  convey  the  same  mean- 
ing :  "  He  hath  grieved  me  but  in  part." 

Obs.  6.  We  sometimes  find  adverbs  used  after  he  manner  of 
nonns:  as,  "The  Son  of  Man  hath  not  where  to  1  iy  his  head."-^ 
Matt.  viii.  20.  "  The  Son  of  God — was  not  yea  and  nay,  but  in  him 
was  yea." — 2  Cor.  i.  19.  "  An  eternal  now  does  always  ast."-— 
Cowley. 


80  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


RULE     XVI. — CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions  connect  either  words  or  senten- 
ces ;  as,  "  Let  there  be  no  strife,  I  pray  thee,  be- 
tween me  and  thee,  and  between  my  herdmen 
and  thy  herdmen  5  for  we  are  brethren." — Bible. 

Obs.  1.  Conjunctions  that  connect  particular  words,  generally 
join  similar  parts  of  speech,  in  a  common  dependence  on  some 
other  term.  Those  which  connect  sentences  or  clauses,  commonly 
unite  one  to  an  other,  either  as  an  additional  affirmation,  or  as  a 
condition,  a  cause,  or  an  end. 

Obs.  2.  The  conjunction  as,  often  unites  words  that  are  in  apposi- 
tion ;  as,  "  He  offered  himself  as  a.  journeyman." 

Obs.  3.  As  frequently  has  the  force  of  a  relative  pronoun ;  aa, 
"  Avoid  such  as  are  vicious." — "  But  to  as  many  as  received  him, 
&c." — ';  He  then  read  the  conditions  as  follow." 

Obs.  4.  The  conjunction  that,is  frequently  understood  ;  as,  "We 
hoped  [that]  you  would  come." 

Obs.  5.  The  conjunction  that,  when  it  introduces  a  sentence  as 
the  subject  of  a  verb,  does  not  connect  it  to  any  other  term ;  as, 
"  That  mind  is  not  matter,  is  certain." 

Obs.  6.  After  than  or  as  expressing  a  comparison,  there  is  usually 
an  ellipsis  of  some  word  or  words.  The  construction  of  the  words 
employed,  may  be  known  by  supplying  the  ellipsis ;  as,  "  She  is 
younger  than  I"  [am]. — "  He  does  nothing,  who  endeavours  to  do 
more  than  [what]  is  allowed  to  humanity." — Johnson, 

RULE    XVII. PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions  show  the  relations  of  things :  as, 
u  The  house  was  founded  on  a  rock." 

Obs.  1.  The  former  term  of  relation  is  sometimes  understood :  as, 
[7  say]  "  In  a  word,  it  would  entirely  defeat  my  purpose." — "  For 
all  shall  know  me,  [reckoning]  from  the  least  to  the  greatest." — 
Heb  v;,.  11. 

Oos.  2.  When  a  preposition  introduces  the  infinitive,  a  phrase,  or 
a  sentence,  which  is  made  the  entire  subject  or  predicate  of  a  prop 
osition,  it  has  no  antecedent  term  of  relation  ;  as,  "  To  be  good,  is, 
to  be  happy." — "  To  be  reduced  to  poverty,  is  a  great  affliction." 
"  For  an  old  man  to  be  reduced  to  poverty,  is  a  very  great  afflic- 
tion." Dr.  Adam  remarks,  that  "  To  is  often  taken  absolutely ;  as, 
'  To  confess  the  truth,' — '  To  proceed.'  "  But  his  examples  are  not 
appropriate ;  for  what  he  and  many  other  grammarians  call  the 
infinitive  absolute,  evidently  depends  on  something  understood. 

Obs.  3.  In  the  familiar  style,  a  preposition  governing  a  relative 
or  an  interrogative  pronoun,  is  often  separated  from  its  object,  and 
connected  with  the  other  term  of  relation :  as      Whom  did  he 


SYNTAX.  8  J 

speak  to  ?"  But  it  is  more  dignified,  and,  in  general,  more  graceful, 
to  place  the  preposition  before  the  pronoun ;  as,  "  To  whom  did  he 
speak  V 

Obs.  4.  Two  prepositions  sometimes  come  together,  so  that 
they  ougnt  not  to  be  separated  in  parsing ;  as,  "  Lambeth  is  ovf 
against  Wesminster-abbey." — L.  Murray. 

And  from  before  the  lustre  of  her  face." — Thomson. 

Obs.  5.  Two  separate  prepositions  have  sometimes  a  joint  refer 
ence  to  the  same  noun ;  as,  u  He  boasted  of  and  contended  for 
the  privilege."  This  construction  is  formal,  and  scarcely  allowable, 
except  in  the  law  style.  It  is  better  to  say,  "  He  boasted  of  the 
privilege,  and  contended  for  it." 

RULE     XVIII. INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections  have  no  dependent  construction  : 
as,  "  O I  let  not  thy  heart  despise  me." — Johnson. 

Obs.  "Interjections  in  English  have  no  government." — Lowth. 
When  a  word,  not  in  the  nominative  absolute,  is  connected  with  an 
interjection,  or  used  in  exclamation,  its  construction  generally  de- 
pends upon  something  understood;  as,  "Ah  we/" — that  is,  "Ah! 
pity  me  /" — "  Wo  is  me  /" — that  is,  "  Wo  is  to  me  /" 

2.   Government.* 

RULE    XIX. POSSESSIVES. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case,  is 
governed  by  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed  :  as, 

u  Theirs  is  the  vanity,  the  learning  thine  $ " 
Touch'd  by  thy  hand,  again  Rome^s  glories  shine." 

Obs.  1.  The  governing  noun  is  sometimes  understood  ;  as,  "  At 
the  Alderman's"  [house]. — "  A  book  of  my  brother's"  [books]. 

Obs.  2.  When  nouns  of  the  possessive  case,  are  connected  by 
conjunctions,  or  put  in  apposition,  the  sign  of  possession  must  always 
be  annexed  to  such,  and  such  only,  as  immediately  precede  the  gov- 
erning noun,  expressed  or  understood ;  as,  "  John  and  Eliza's 
teacher  is  a  man  of  more  learning  than  James's,  or  Andrew's." — 
"  For  David  my  servant's  sake." 

Obs.  3.  The  apostrophe  and  s  are  sometimes  annexed  to  that  part 
of  a  compound  name,  which  is ,  of  itsellj  in  the  objective  case  ;  as, 
"  The  captain-of-the-guard's  house." — Bible.  "  The  Bard-ol-Lo- 
mond's  lay  is  done." — Hogg. 

Obs.  4.  To  avoid  a  concurrence  of  hissing  sounds,  the  s  is  some- 


*  The  arrangement  of  words  is  Irea.'ed  of  ill  the  observations  under  the  R  lies,  bo 
mote  fully  in  the  author's  larger  wjrk. 


82  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

times  omitted,  and  the  apostrophe  only  retained  ;  as,  "For  conscience 
sake."—"  Moses'  minister."—"  Felix'  room."—"  Achilles'  wrath." 
But  in  prose  this  elision  should  be  sparingly  indulged. 

Obs.  5.  The  relation  of  property  may  also  be  expressed  by  the  prep- 
osition of;  as,  "  The  will  of  man,"— for  "  man's  will."  Of  these 
forms,  we  should  adopt  that  which  will  render  the  sentence  the  mos' 
perspicuous  and  agreeable  ;  and,  by  the  use  of  both,  avoid  an  un 
pleasant  repetition  of  either. 

RULE    XX. OBJECTIVES. 

Active-transitive  verbs,  and  their  imperfect  and 
pluperfect  participles,  govern  the  objective  case: 
as, "  I  found  her  assisting  him."  u  Having  finished 
the  work,  I  submit  it." 

Obs.  1.  The  objective  case  generally  follows  the  governing  word 
but  when  it  is  emphatic,  it  sometimes  precedes  it ;  as,  "  This  poini 
they  have  gained."     A  relative  or  an  interrogative  pronoun  is  com- 
monly placed  at  the  head  of  its  clause  ;  as,  Whom  will  the  meeting 
appoint  ?" 

Obs.  2.  Active-transitive  verbs  are  sometimes  followed  by  two  ob- 
jectives in  apposition  /  as,  "  Thy  saints  proclaim  thee  king." — Cow- 
per. — "  And  God  called  the  frmament  Heaven." — Bible. 

Obs.  3.  When  a  verb  is  followed  by  two  words  in  the  objective 
case,  which  are  not  in  apposition,  nor  connected  by  a  conjunction 
one  of  them  is  governed  by  a preposition  understood  ;  as,  "  I  paid  [to j 
him  the  money." — "  They  offered  [to]  me  a  seat." — "  He  asked  [of  J 
them  the  question." 

Obs.  4.  In  expressing  such  sentences  passively,  the  object  of  the 
preposition  is  sometimes  erroneously  assumed  for  the  nominative :  as, 
"  He  was  paid  the  money"  instead  of,  "  The  money  was  paid  [to] 
him." 

Obs.  5.  Some  verbs  will  govern  a  kindred  noun,  or  its  pronoun, 
but  no  other :  as,  "  He  lived  a  virtuous  life." — "  Hear,  I  pray  you. 
this  dream  which  I  have  dreamed." — Gen.  xxxvii.  6. 


RULE    XXI. SAME    CASES. 

Active-intransitive,  passive,  and  neuter  verbs,  and 
their  participles,  take  the  same  case  after  as  before 
them,  when  both  words  refer  to  the  same  thing :  as, 
"  He  returned  &  friend,  who  came  a  foe." — u  The 
child  was  named  John." — "  It  could  not  be  he." 

Obs.  1.  This  is,  perhaps,  more  properly  a  rule  of  agreement;  the 
words  connected  by  the  verb,  agree  as  if  they  were  in  apposition.— 
[See  Rule,  hi.] 


SYNTAX.  83 

Obs.  2.  In  the  foregoing  rule,  the  words  after  and  be/or*  refer 
rather  to  the  order  of  the  sense  and  construction,  than  to  the  j  lacing 
of  the  words.  The  proper  subject  of  the  verb  is  the  nominative  to 
it,  or  before  it,  by  Rule  ii. ;  and  the  other  nominative,  however 
placed,  belongs  after  the  verb,  by  Rule  xxi. 

Obs.  3.  In  interrogative  sentences,  the  terms  are  usually  trans- 
posed, or  both  are  placed  after  the  verb  ;  as, 

"  Whence,  and  what  art  thou,  execrable  shape  ?" — Milton. 
"  Art  thou  that  traitor  angel  ?  art  thou  he  ?" — Idem. 

Obs.  4.  In  some  peculiar  constructions,  both  words  naturally  come 
before  the  verb  ;  as,  "  I  know  not  who  she  is."  And  they  are  some- 
times placed  in  this  manner  by  transposition ;  as,  "  Yet  He  it  is." 

RULE    XXII. OBJECTIVES. 

Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case  :  as, 

"  Truth  and  good  are  one : 
And  beauty  dwells  in  them,  and  they  in  her. 
With  like  participation." — Akenside. 

Obs.  1.  Most  of  the  prepositions  may  take  the  imperfect  participU 
tor  their  object ;  and  some,  the  compound :  as,  "  On  opening  the 
trial,  they  accused  him  of  having  defrauded  them." 

Obs.  2.  Prepositions  are  sometimes  elliptically  construed  with  ad- 
iectives  ;  as,  in  vain,  in  secret,  at  first,  on  high — i.  e.  in  a  vain  man- 
ner, in  secret  places,  at  the  first  time,  on  high  places.  In  parsing 
supply  the  ellipsis.     [See  Obs.  4th,  under  Rule  iv.] 

Obs.  3.  In  a  few  instances  prepositions  precede  adverbs;  as,  at 
once,  from  above,  forever.  These  should  be  united  if  the  terms  are 
to  be  parsed  together  as  adverbs ;  but  we  may  suppose  the  latter 
words  to  be  used  substantively,  by  Obs.  6th,  on  Rule  15th. 

Obs.  4.  When  nouns  of  time  or  measure  are  connected  with  verbs 
or  adjectives,  the  prepositions  which  govern  them,  are  generally 
suppressed  ;  as,  "  We  rode  sixty  miles  that  day ;  that  is,  "  through 
sixty  miles  on  that  day."—"  The  wall  is  ten  feet  high ;"  that  is, 
"  high  to  ten  feet."  In  parsing,  supply  the  ellipsis. — Such  expres- 
sions as,  "  A  board  of  six  feet  long." — "  A  boy  of  twelve  years  old," 
—are  wrong.  Strike  out  of;  or  say,  "  a  board  of  six  feet  in  length,1' 
— "  A  boy  of  twelve  years  of  age? 

Obs.  5.  After  the  adjectives  like,  near,  and  nigh,  the  prepositiot 
to  or  unto  is  generally  understood;  as,  "  It  is  like  [to or  untoA  sil 
ver."— "  Near  [to]  yonder  copse." — "  Nigh  [to]  this  recess." 

Obs.  6.  The  word  worth,  which  most  grammarians  call  an  adjec- 
tive, is  followed  either  by  the  objective  case  or  by  a  participle,  sup- 
posed to  be  governed  by  o/understood  ;  as  the  book  is  worth  a  dol 
far."—"  It  is  worth  mentioning."  But,  after  a  careful  examinatioL 
of  the  term,  we  know  no  reason  why  worth  should  be  called  an  ad 
fective,  rather  than  a  preposition  governing  the  word  which  follows  it. 

Ubs.  7.  After  verbs  of  giving,  procuring,  and  some  others,  there 


84  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

ia  usually  an  ellipsis  of  to  or  for  before  the  objective  of  the  person ; 
as,  "  Give  [to]  him  water  to  drink." — "  Buy  [for]  me  a  knife." 

RULE    XXIII. INFINITIVES. 

The  preposition  to  governs  the  infinitive  mood, 
and  commonly  connects  it  to  a  finite  verb :  as, 
<6 1  desire  to  learn." — Dr.  Adam. 

Obs.  1.  Most  grammarians  have  considered  the  sign  to  as  a  part 
of  the  infinitive ;  and  have  referred  the  government  of  this  mood  to 
a  preceding  verb.  Eut  the  rule  which  they  give  is  partial  and  often 
inapplicable  ;  and  their  exceptions  to  it  are  numerous  and  puzzling. 
Though  the  infinitive  is  commonly  made  an  adjunct  to  some  finite 
verb,  yet  it  may  be  joined  to  almost  all  the  other  parts  of  speech. — 
[See  Institutes  of  E<  Gram.  p.  186.] 

Obs.  2.  The  infinitive  sometimes  depends  on  a  verb  understood  j 
as,  "  To  be  candid  with  you,  [I'confess]  I  was  in  fault." 

RULE    XXIV. INFINITIVES. 

The  active  verbs  bid,  dare,  feel,  hear,  let, 
make,  need,  see,  and  their  participles,  take  the  in- 
finitive after  them,  without  the  preposition  to  .  as, 
"  If  he  bade  thee  depart,  how  dar est  thou  stay  ?" 

Obs.  1.  The  preposition  is  always  employed  after  the  passive  form 
of  these  verbs,  and  in  some  instances  after  the  active  ;  as,  "  He  was 
heard  to  say." — "  I  cannot  see  to  do  it." — "  What  would  dare  to  mo- 
lest him  who  might  call  on  every  side,  to  thousands  enriched  by  his 
bounty  ?" — Dr.  Johnson. 

Obs.  2.  The  auxiliary  0£  of  the  passive  infinitive  is  also  sup- 
messed  after  feel,  here,make,  and  see;  as,  "I  heard  the  letter  read,7* 
not,  "  be  read." 

RULE    XXV.— -NOMINATIVE    ABSOLUTE. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  put  absolute  in  the  nom 
inative,  when  its  case  depends  on  no  other  word : 
as,  "He failing,  who  shall  meet  success  ?" — "  Your 
fathers,  where  are  they  ?  and  the  prophets,  do 
they  live  forever  V9 — Zech.  i.  5. 

a  This  said,  he  form'd  thee,  Adam  !  thee,  O  man  ! 
Dust  of  the  ground." — Milton. 


SYNTAX.  85 

Obs.  1.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  put  absolute  in  the  nominative 
cnder  *he  following  four  circumstances : 

1.  When  with  a  participle,  it  is  used  to  express  a  3ause,  or  a  coi* 
comitant  fact ;  as, 

"  Tlwu  looking  on, 
Shame  to  be  overcome  or  overreach'd, 
Would  utmost  vigour  raise." — Milton. 

2.  When,  by  a  direct  address,  it  is  put  in  the  second  person,  and 
set  off  from  the  verb ;  as,  "  At  length,  Seged,  reflect  and  be  wise." 

3.  When,  by  pleonasm,  it  is  abruptly  introduced,  for  the  sake  of 
emphasis ;  as,  "  He  that  is  in  the  city,  famine  and  pestilence  shall 
devour  him."— "Gad,  a  troop  shall  overcome  him." — "The  north 
and  the  south,  ihou  hast  created  them." — Bible. 

4.  When,  by  mere  exclamation,  it  is  used  without  address,  and 
without  other  words  expressed  or  implied  to  give  it  construction ;  as, 

"  Oh !  deep  enchanting  prelude  to  repose !" — Campbell. 

Obs.  2.  The  nominative  put  absolute  with  a  participle,  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  dependent  clause  commencing  with  when,  while,  if,  since, 
or  because  ;  as,  "  I  being  a  child" — equal  to,  "  When  I  was  a  child." 

Obs.  3.  The  participle  being  is  often  understood  after  nouns  or 
pronouns  put  absolute ;  as, 

"  Alike  in  ignorance,  his  reason  [ ]  such, 

Whether  he  thinks  too  little  or  too  much."     Pope. 

Obs.  4.  All  nouns  preceded  by  an  article,  are  in  the  third  person , 
and,  in  exclamatory  phrases,  such  nouns  sometimes  appear  to  have 
no  determinable  construction:  as,  "  O  the  depth  of  the  riches  both 
of  the  wisdom  and  knowledge  of  God!" — Rom.  xi.  32. 

Obs.  5.  The  case  of  nouns  -used  in  exclamations,  or  in  mottoes 
and  abbreviated  sayings,  often  depends,  or  may  be  conceived  to  de 
pend,  on  something  understood  ;  and  when  their  construction  can  be 
satisfactorily  explained  on  the  principles  of  ellipsis,  they  are  not  in'.t 
absolute.  The  following  examples  may  perhaps  be  resolved  in  this 
manner,  though  the  expressions  will  lose  much  of  their  vivacity ;  "  A 
harse  I  a  horse  !  my  kingdom  for  a  horse !" — Shak.  "  Heaps  upon 
heaps" — "  Skin  for  skin" — "  An  eye  for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a 
tooth"—"  Day  after  day"—"  World  without  end."— Bible. 

RULE    XXVI. THE    SUBJUNCTIVE. 

A  future  contingency  is  best  expressed  by  a  verb 
in  the  Subjunctive,  present  ;  and  a  mere  supposi- 
tion, with  indefinite  time,  by  a  verb  in  the  Subjunc- 
tive, imperfect :  but  a  conditional  circumstance 
assumed  as  a  fact,  requires  the  Indicative  Mood 

s 


8G  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

as,  "  If  thou  forsahe  him,  he  will  cast  thee  off  for- 
ever."— "  If  it  were  not  so,  I  would  have  told 
you." — "If  thou  went,  nothing  would  be  gained." — 
"  Though  he  is  poor,  he  is  contented." 


EXAMPLES  FOR  PARSING. 
CHAPTER  VII.— SYNTACTICAL. 

it  is  here  required  of  the  pupil — to  distinguisJi  the  different  parts 
of  speech,  and  their  classes ;  to  mention  their  modifications  in 
order  ;  to  point  out  their  relation,  agreement,  or  government ;  and 
to  apply  the  Rules  of  Syntax.    Thus, 


EXAMPLE    PARSED. 

V 
"  Man's  highest  interest  consists  in  virtue." 

Mail's  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  mas- 
culine gender,  and  possessive  case:  and  is  governed  by 
interest ;  according  to  Rule  xix,  which  says,  "  A  noun  or 
a  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case,  is  governed  by  the  name 
of  the  thing  possessed."  Because  the  meaning  is, — mans 
interest. 

Highest  is  a  common  adjective,  of  the  superlative  degree ;  compared 
high,  higher,  highest :  and  relates  to  interest ;  according  to 
Rule  iv,  which  says,  "Adjectives  relate  to  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns."    Because  the  meaning  is, — highest  interest. 

Interest  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neu- 
ter gender,  and  nominative  case :  and  is  the  subject  of  con- 
sists; according  to  Rule  ii,  which  says,  "A  noun  or  a 
pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  verb,  must  be  in  the 
nominative  case."  Because  the  meaning  is, — interest  con- 
sists. 

Consists  is  a  regular  neuter  verb,  from  consist,  consisted,  consisting, 
consisted;  found  in  the  indicative  mood,  present  tensej 
third  person,  and  singular  number:  and  agrees  with  its 
nominative  interest;  according  to  Rule  ix,  which  says,  "  A 
verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  or  nominative,  in  person 
and  number."     Because  the  meaning  is, — interest  consists. 

i)l  is  a  preposition :  and  shows  the  relation  between  virtue  and  con- 
sists ;  according  to  Rule  xvii,  which  says,  "Prepositions 
show  the  relations  of  things."  Because  the  meaning  is,— 
amsists  in  virtue. 


SYNTAX.  87 

Virtue  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neu- 
ter gender,  and  objective  case :  and  is  governed  by  in  j 
according  to  Rule  xxii,  which  says,  "  Prepositions  govern 
the  objective  case."     Because  the  meaning  is, — in  virtue 

LESSON   I. 

The  bee  and  the  butterfly  are  both  busy  bodies ;  but  their  pur- 
poses of  action  appear  to  be  very  different. 

A  lottery,  which  is  confessedly  a  species  of  gambling,  is  an  unsafe 
corner-stone  for  a  public  edifice. 

It  is  said  that  some  thieves  who  once  robbed  a  traveller,  very 
gravely  charged  him  with  dishonesty  for  concealing  a  part  of  his 
money. 

LESSON   II. 

Others  sometimes  appear  to  us  more  wrong  than  they  are,  be- 
cause we  ourselves  are  not  right  in  judging  them. 

Genius  may  often  be  discovered  by  the  manner  in  which  children 
pass  their  leisure  moments. 

Innocent  minds  are  the  least  suspicious ;  and  they  who  are  least 
apt  to  offend,  the  most  readily  forgive. 

LESSON    III. 

Power  enthroned  with  wisdom  on  its  right  hand  and  mercy  on  its 
left,  constitutes  a  complete  judge. 

All  public  measures  that  are  not  strictly  equitable,  are  destructive 
of  the  true  end  of  civil  government. 

Where  there  is  no  knowledge  of  the  law,  a  man  acting  contrary 
to  it,  cannot  be  properly  said  to  transgress  it. 

LESSON    IV. 

A  reply  is  properly  a  return  to  an  answer :  to  answer  and  to  re- 
ply are  therefore  not  always  equivalent  expressions. 

He  who  prides  himself  on  his  learning,  would,  if  he  were  destitute 
of  that,  be  just  as  proud  of  a  pair  of  new  shoefe.  A  literary  boaster 
is  therefore  as  far  from  wisdom  and  modesty  as  any  other  bragga- 
docio. 

LESSON   v. 

Language  is  to  the  understanding  what  a  genteel  motion  is  to 
the  body— a  very  great  advantage  :  but  a  person  may  be  superior 
to  an  other  in  understanding,  and  not  have  an  equal  dignity  of  ex- 
pression. 

Fine  writing  is  generally  the  effect  of  spontaneous  thoughts  and 
a  laboured  style. 

A  sound  Head  and  a  good  heart  are  as  essential  to  genius  a»  a 
lively  imagination. 


88  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 


LESSON   VI. 


A  large,  branching,  aged  oak,  is,  perhaps,  the  most  venerable  of 
ail.  inanimate  objects. 

No  man  of  sense  ever  took  any  pains  to  appear  wise  ;  as  no  hon- 
est man  ever  used  any  tricks  to  display  his  own  integrity. 

I  consider  your  very  testy  and  quarrelsome  people  in  the  same 
light  as  I  do  a  loaded  gun ;  which  may,  by  accident  go  off  and  kill 


LESSON    VII. 

Were  a  man  ol  pleasure  to  arrive  at  the  full  extent  of  his  several 
wishes,  he  must  immediately  feel  himself  miserable.  It  is  one  spe- 
cies of  despair,  to  have  no  room  to  hope  for  any  addition  to  one's 
happiness.  His  following  wish  must  then  be,  to  wish  that  he  had 
some  fresh  object  for  his  wishes. — This  is  a  strong  argument,  that 
the  mind  and  the  body  were  both  designed  for  strenuous  activity. 

LESSON    VIII. 

Shining  characters  are  not  always  the  most  agreeable  ones :  the 
mild  radiance  of  the  emerald  is  by  no  means  less  pleasing  than  the 
glare  of  the  ruby. 

To  be  at  once  a  rake  and  to  glory  in  the  character,  discovers  at 
the  same  time  a  bad  disposition  and  a  bad  heart 

Few  men,  that  would  cause  respect  and  distance  merely,  can  say 
any  thing  by  which  their  end  will  be  so  effectually  answered  as  by 
silence. 

LESSON    IX. 

If  we  would  judge  whether  a  man  is  really  happy,  it  is  not  solely 
to  his  houses  and  lands,  to  his  equipage  and  his  retinue,  we  are  to 
look.  Unless  we  could  see  farther,  and  discern  what  joy  or  what 
bitterness  his  heart  feels,  we  can  pronounce  little  concerning  him. 

LESSON  x. 

Riches  and  pleasures  are  the  chief  temptations  to  criminal  deeds. 
Yet  those  riches  when  obtained  may  very  possibly  overwhelm  us 
with  unforeseen  miseries.  Those  pleasures  may  cut  short  our  health 
and  life. 

The  house  of  feasting  too  often  becomes  an  avenue  to  the  house 
of  mourning.   Short,  to  the  licentious,  :js  the  interval  between  them. 

LESSON    XI. 

The  veil  which  covers  from  our  sight  the  events  of  succeeding 
years,  is  a  veil  woven  by  the  hand  of  mercy. 

He  who  pretends  to  great  sensibility  towards  men,  and  yet  has 
no  feeling  for  the  high  objects  of  religion,  no  heart  to  admire  and 
adore  the  great  Father  of  the  universe,  has  reason  to  distrust  the 
truth  and  delicacy  of  his  sensibility. 


SYNTAX.  89 


LESSON    XII. 

Genuine  virtue  has  a  language  that  speaks  to  every  heart  through- 
out the  world.  It  is  a  language  which  is  understood  by  all.  In 
every  region,  every  climate,  the  homage  paid  to  it  is  the  same.  In 
no  one  sentiment  were  ever  mankind  more  generally  agreed. 

LESSON   XIII. 

O  blind  to  each  indulgent  aim 

Of  pow'r  supremely  wise, 
Who  fancy  happiness  in  aught 

The  hand  of  Heav'n  denies ! 
Vain  is  alike  the  joy  we  seek, 

And  vain  what  we  possess, 
Unless  harmonious  reason  tunes 

The  passions  into  peace. 
To  temper'd  wishes,  just  desires, 

Is  happiness  confined ; 
And,  deaf  to  folly's  call,  attends 

The  music  of  the  mind. — Carter. 


QUESTIONS  ON  SYNTAX. 

LESSON   I. — DEFINITIONS. 

Of  what  aoes  Syntax  treat  ? 

What  is  the  relation  of  words  ? 

What  is  the  agreement  of  words  ? 

What  is  the  government  of  words  ? 

What  is  the  arrangement  of  words  ? 

What  is  a  sentence  ? 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  sentence? 

What  are  the  other  parts  called  ? 

How  many  kinds  of  sentences  are  there  ? 

What  is  a  simple  sentence  ? 

What  is  a  compound  sentence  ? 

What  is  a  clause  ? 

What  is  a  phrase  ? 

What  words  must  be  supplied  in  parsing  ? 

/ 

LESSON   II. — RULES. 

How  many  Rules  of  Syntax  are  there? 

Which  are  the  rules  of  relation  and  agreement? 

Wl.ich  are  the  rules  of  government? 

Where  is  the  arrangement  of  words  treated  of? 

What  part  of  speech  is  without  any  rule  of  syntax  ' 

To  what  do  articles  relate  ? 

3* 


90  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

What  case  is  employed  as  the  subject  of  a  verb  ? 

How  do  words  in  apposition  agree  7 

To  what  do  adjectives  relate  ? 

How  does  a  pronouii  agree  with  its  antecedent? 

How  does  a  pronoun  agree  with  a  collective  noun  i 

How  does  a  pronoun  agree  with  joint  antecedents  ? 

How  does  a  pronoun  agree  with  disjunct  antecedents  ? 

LESSON    III. — RULES. 

How  does  a  verb  agree  with  its  subject,  or  nominative ! 

How  does  a  verb  agree  with  a  collective  noun? 

How  does  a  verb  agree  with  joint  nominatives  ? 

How  does  a  verb  agree  with  disjunct  nominatives  ? 

What  agreement  is  required,  when  verbs  are  connected 1 

How  are  participles  employed  1 

To  what  do  abverbs  relate"? 

What  is  the  use  of  conjunctions  ? 

What  is  the  use  of  prepositions  ] 

To  what  do  interjections  relate  1 

LESSON    IV. — RULES. 

By  what  is  the  possessive  case  governed  1 

What  case  do  active-transitive  verbs  govern  1 

What  case  is  put  after  other  verbs  1 

What  case  do  prepositions  govern  1 

What  governs  the  infinitive  mood ! 

What  verbs  take  the  infinitive  after  them,  without  the  prepositi  n  to1 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  put  absolute  1 

When  should  the  subjunctive  mood  be  employed  1 

LESSON    V. — PARSING. 

What  is  required  of  the  pupil  in  the  seventh  chapter  for  parsing  1 
How  is  the  following  example  parsed  ]     "  Man's  highest  interest 
consists  in  virtue." 

[Now  parse,  m  like  manner,  the  thirteen  lessons  of  the  Seventh 
Ufiapter.] 


PART    IV. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody  treats  of  punctuation,  utterance,  figures, 
and  versification. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  composition, 
by  points,  or  stops,  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
more  clearly  the  sense  and  relation  of  the  words, 
and  of  noting  the  different  pauses  and  inflections 
required  in  reading. 

The  following  are  the  principal  points,  or  marks : 
the  Comma  [,],  the  Semicolon  [,],  the  Colon  [:], 
the  Period  [.],  the  Dash  [— ],  the  Note  of  Inter- 
rogation [?],  the  Note  of  Exclamation  [!],  and 
the  Parenthesis  [()]. 

The  Comma  denotes  the  shortest  pause ;  the 
Semicolon,  a  pause  double  that  of  the  comma ; 
the  Colon,  a  pause  double  that  of  the  semicolon  ; 
and  the  Period,  or  Full  Stop,  a  pause  double  that 
of  the  colon.  The  pauses  required  by  the  other 
four,  vary  according  to  the  structure  of  the  sen- 
tence, and  their  place  in  it. 

OF  THE  COMMA. 

The  Comma  is  used  to  separate  those  parts  of 
a  sentence,  which  are  so  nearly  connected  in  sense, 
as  to  be  only  one  degree  removed  from  that  close 
connexion  which  admits  no  point : 

EXAMPLES. 

That  life  is  long,  which  answers  life's  great  end. 
The  mind,  though  free,  has- a  governor  within  itself. 
In  eternity,  days,  years,  and  ages,  are  nothing. 
Good  and  evil,  like  heat  and  cold,  differ  totally. 
To  strengthen  our  virtue,  God  hids  us  trust  in  him. 


92  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

OF  THE  SEMICOLON. 

The  Semicolon  is  used  to  separate  those  parts 
of  a  compound  sentence,  which  are  neither  so 
closely  connected  as  those  which  are  distinguished 
by  the  comma,  nor  so  little  dependent  as  those 
which  require  the  colon : 

EXAMPLES. 

In  the  regions  inhabited  by  angelic  natures,  unmingled  felicity  for 
ever  blooms ;  joy  flows  there  with  a  perpetual  and  abundant  stream, 
nor  needs  any  mound  to  check  its  course. 

Straws  swim  upon  the  surface ;  but  pearls  lie  at  the  bottom. 

OF  THE  COLON. 

The  Colon  is  used  to  separate  those  parts  of  a 
compound  sentence,  which  are  neither  so  closely 
connected  as  those  which  are  distinguished  by  the 
semicolon,  nor  so  little  dependent  as  those  which 
require  the  period  : 

EXAMPLES. 

Avoid  evil  doers :  in  such  society,  an  honest  man  may  become 
ashamed  of  himself. 

Princes  have  courtiers,  and  merchants  have  partners  ;  the  volup- 
tuous have  companions,  and  the  wicked  have  accomplices :  none  bu 
the  virtuous  can  have  friends. 

OF  THE  PERIOD. 

The  Period,  or  Full  Stop,  is  used  to  mark  an 
entire  and  independent  sentence,  whether  simple 
or  compound  : 

EXAMPLES. 

Every  deviation  from  truth,  is  criminal.  Abhor  a  falsehood.  Let 
your  words  be  ingenuous.  Sincerity  possesses  the  most  powerful 
charm. — Blair. 

OF  THE  DASH. 

The  Dash  is  used  to  denote  an  unexpected 
pause,  of  variable  length  : 

EXAMPLES. 

"I  must  inquire  into  the  affair,  and  if" — "And  if!"  interrupted 
the  farrxier. 


PROSODY. 


93 


Here  lies  the  great — false  marble,  where  ? 
Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  here. —  Young. 


OF  THE  NOTE  OF  INTERROGATION. 
The  Note  of  Interrogation  is  used  to  designate 
a  question : 

EXAMPLES. 

In  life,  can  love  be  bought  with  gold  ? 

Are  friendship's  pleasures  to  be  sold  1— Johnson. 

OF  THE  NOTE  OF  EXCLAMATION. 
The  Note  of  Exclamation  is  used  to  denote 
some  strong  or  sudden  emotion  of  the  mind : 

EXAMPLES. 

O !  let  me  listen  to  the  words  of  life  ! — Thomson. 
Alas !  how  is  that  rugged  heart  forlorn ! — Beattie. 

OF  THE  PARENTHESIS. 
The  Parenthesis  is  used  to  distinguish  a  clause 
that  is  hastily  thrown  in  between  the  parts  of  a 
sentence  to  which  it  does  not  properly  belong : 

EXAMPLES. 

To  others  do  (the  law  is  not  severe) 

What  to  thyself  thou  wishest  to  be  done. — Beattie. 

Know  then  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 

Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below. — Pope. 
Obs.  The  incidental  clause  should  be  uttered  in  a  lower  tone,  and 
faster  than  the  principal  sentence.     It  always  requires  both  before 
and  after  it,  a  pause  as  great  as  that  of  a  comma,  or  greater. 

OF  THE  OTHER  MARKS. 
There  are  also  other  marks  that  are  occasion- 
ally used  for  various  purposes,  as  follow : 

1.  [']  The  Apostrophe  denotes  either  the  possessive  case,  or  the 
elision  of  one  or  more  letters  of  a  word ;  as,  The  girVs  regard  to 
her  parents'  advice  ; — ^gan,  lov'd,  een,  thro1 ;  for  began,  loved,  even, 
through. 

2.  [-]  The  Hyphen  connects  the  parts  of  compound  words  ;  as, 
ever-living.  Placed  at  the  end  of  a  line,  it  shows  that  one  or  more 
syllables  of  a  word  are  carried  forward  to  the  next  line. 

3.  f  ]  The  Diceresis,  placed  over  the  latter  of  two  vowels, 
shows  that  they  are  not  a  diphthong ;  as,  aerial. 

4.  f  '"J  The  Acute  Accent  marks  the  syllable  which  requires  the 


94  ENOLISH    GRAMMAR. 

principa.  siress  in  pronunciation  ;  as,  e  qual,  equal'ity.  It  is  some- 
times used  in  opposition  to  the  grave  accent,  to  distinguish  a  close 
or  short  vowel,  or  to  denote  the  rising  inflection  of  the  voice. 

5.  [x]  The  Grave  Accent  is  used,  in  opposition  tc  the  acute,  to 
distinguish  an  open  or  long  vowel,  or  to  denote  the  falling  inflection 
of  the  voice. 

6.  [ A]  The  Circumflex  generally  denotes  the  broad  sound  of  a 
vowel  ;  as,  eclat. 

7.  [ "]  The  Breve  is  used  to  denote  either  a  close  vowel,  or  a  syl- 
lable of  short  quantity;  as,  rnven,  to  devour. 

8.  [-]  The  Macron  is  used  to  denote  either  an  open  vowel  or  a 
syllable  of  long  quantity  ;  as,  raven,  a  bird. 

9.  [ ]  or  [****]  The  Ellipsis  denotes  the  omission  of  some 

letters  or  words ;  as,  K—  g  for  king. 

10.  [a]  The  Caret  shews  where  to  insert  words  that  have  been 
accidentally  omitted. 

11.  [  \  J  The  Brace  serves  to  unite  a  triplet,  or  to  connect  several 
terms  with  something  to  which  they  are  all  related. 

12.  [§]  The  Section  marks  the  smaller  divisions  of  a  book  or 
chapter. 

13.  [IF]  The  Paragraph  (chiefly  used  in  the  Bible)  denotes  the 
commencement  of  a  new  subject.  The  parts  of  discourse  which 
are  called  paragraphs,  are,  in  general,  sufficiently  distinguished,  by 
beginning  a  new  line,  and  carrying  the  first  word  a  little  forwards 
or  backwards. 

14.  [""]  The  Quotation  Points  distinguish  words  that  are  taken 
from  some  other  author  or  speaker.  A  quotation  within  a  quotation 
is  marked  with  single  points ;  which,  when  both  are  employed,  are 
placed  within  the  others. 

15.  [[]]  The  Crotchets  generally  enclose  some  correction  or  ex- 
planation, or  the  subject  to  be  explained ;  as,  "  He  [the  speaker  ] 
was  of  a  different  opinion." 

16.  [H3"]  The  Index  points  out  something  remarkable. 

17.  [*]  The  Asterisk,  [f]  the  Obelisk,  [X]  the  Double  Dagger,  and 
[||]  the  Parallel,  refer  to  marginal  notes.  The  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet, or  the  numerical  figures,  may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose. 


f- 

UTTERANCE. 

Utterance  is  the  art  of  vocal  expression.  It 
includes  the  principles  of  pronunciation  and  elo- 
cution. 

OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

Pronunciation,  as  distinguished  from  elocution^ 
is  the  utterance  of  words  taken  separately. 


PROSODY.  95 

Pronunciation  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  just 
powers  of  the  letters  in  all  their  combinations,  and 
of  the  force  and  seat  of  the  accent. 

1.  The  Just  Powers  of  the  letters  are  'hose  sounds  which  are 
given  to  them  by  the  best  readers. 

2.  Accent  is  the  peculiar  stress  which  we  lay  upon  some  particu- 
lar syllable  of  a  word,  whereby  that  syllable  is  distinguished  from 
the  rest ;  as,  gram' -mar,  gram-ma' '-ri-an. 

Every  word  of  more  than  one  syllable,  has  one  of  its  syllables  ac- 
cented. 

When  the  word  is  long,  for  the  sake  of  harmony  or  distinctness, 
we  often  give  a  secondary,  or  less  forcible  accent,  to  an  other  sylla- 
ble; as,  to  the  last  of  tem'-per-a-ture',  and  to  the  second  ofin-dem'- 
ni-Ji-ca'-tion. 

A  full  and  open  pronunciation  of  the  long  vowel  sounds,  a  clear 
articulation  of  the  consonants,  a  forcible  and  well  placed  accent,  and 
a  distinct  utterance  of  the  unaccented  syllables,  distinguish  the  ele- 
gant speaker. 

OF  ELOCUTION. 

Elocution  is  the  utterance  of  words  that  are 
arranged  into  sentences,  and  form  discourse. 

Elocution  requires  a  knowledge,  and  right  appli- 
cation, of  emphasis,  pauses,  inflections,  and  tones. 

1.  Emphasis  is  the  peculiar  stress  which  we  lay  upon  •some  par- 
ricular  word  or  words  in  a  sentence,  which  are  thereby  distinguished 
from  the  rest. 

2.  Pauses  are  cessations  in  utterance,  which  serve  equally  to  re- 
lieve the  speaker,  and  to  render  language  intelligible  and  pleasing. 
The  duration  of  the  pauses  should  be  proportionate  to  the  degree  of 
connexion  between  the  parts  of  the  discourse. 

3.  Inflections  are  those  peculiar  variations  of  the  human  voice,  by 
which  a  continuous  sound  is  made  to  pass  from  one  note  into  an 
other.  The  passage  of  the  voice  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  or  shriller 
note,  is  called  the  rising  inflection  ; — the  passage  of  the  voice  from 
a  higher  to  a  lower  or  grave  note,  is  called  the  failing  inflection. 

These  two  opposite  inflections  may  be  heard  in  the  following  ex- 
amples :  1.  The  rising,  "  Do  you  mean  to  go  ?"—2.  The  falling, 
"When  will  you.  go?" 

Obs.  Questions  that  may  be  answered  by  yes  or  no,  require  the 
rising  inflection :  those  that  demand  any  other  answe  *,  must  be  ut- 
tered with  the  falling  Inflection. 

4.  Tones  are  those  modulations  of  the  voice,  which  depend  upon 
the  feelings  of  the  speaker.  And  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that 
they  be  natural,  and  adapted  to  the  subject  and  to  the  occasion ;  ibr 
upon  them,  in  a  great  measure,  depends  all  that  is  pleasing  or  inter- 
esting in  elocution. 


96  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

FIGURES. 

A  figure,  in  grammar,  is  an  intentional  devia- 
tion from  the  ordinary  form,  construction,  or  ap- 
plication of  words.  There  are,  accordingly,  fig- 
ures of  Etymology,  figures  of  Syntax,  and  figures 
of  Rhetoric.  When  figures  are  judiciously  em- 
ployed, they  both  strengthen  and  adorn  expression. 
They  occur  more  frequently  in  poetry  than  in 
prose,  and  several  of  them  are  merely  poetic 
licenses. 

FIGURES  OF  ETYMOLOGY. 

A  figure  of  Etymology  is  an  intentional  devia- 
tion from  the  ordinary  form  of  a  word. 

"The  principal  figures  of  Etymology  are  eight;  namely,  A-phcer- 
e-sis,  Pros-the-sis,  Syn-co-pe,  A-poc-o-pe,  Par-a-go-ge,  Di-cer-e-sis, 
Syn-cer-e-sis  and  Tme-sis. 

1.  Apharesis  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  initial  letters  of  a  word ; 
as,  'gainst,  'gan,  'neath, — for  against,  began,  beneath. 

2.  Prosthesis  is  the  prefixing  of  an  expletive  syllable  to  a  word ; 
as,  adown,  appaid,  6estrown,  evanished, — for  down,  paid,  strmon, 
vanished. 

3.  Syncope  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  middle  letters  of  a  word  ; 
as,  medicine,  for  medicine. 

4.  Apocope  is  the  elision  of  some  of  the  final  letters  of  a  word ;  as, 
tho'  for  though. 

5.  Paragoge  is  the  annexing  of  an  expletive  syllable  to  a  word ; 
as,  withouten,  for  without;  my  deary,  for  my  dear. 

6.  Diceresis  is  the  separating  of  two  vowels  that  might  form  a 
diphthong ;  as,  cooperate,  not  cooperate. 

7.  Synceresis  is  the  sinking  of  two  syllables  into  one ;  as,  seest, 
for  seest. 

Obs.  When  a  vowel  is  entirely  suppressed  in  pronunciation, 
(whether  retained  in  writing  or  not,)  the  consonants  connected  with 
it,  fall  into  an  other  syllable :  thus,  loved  or  lotfd,  lovest  or  lov'st,  are 
monosyllables,  except  in  solemn  discourse,  in  which  the  e  is  made 
vocal. 

,  8.  Tmesis  is  the  inserting  of  a  word  between  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound ;  as,  "On  which  side  soever," — "  To  us  ward," — To  God 
ward." — Bible. 

FIGURES  OF  SYNTAX. 

A  figure  of  Syntax  is  an  intentional  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  construction  of  words. 


PROSODY.  97 

The  principal  figures  of  Syntax,  are  five;  name.y,  El-lip-sis,  Ple- 
o-masm,  Syl-lep-sis,  En-al-la-ge,  and  Hy-per-ba-ton. 

1.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  some  words  which  are  necessary  to 
complete  the  construction,  but  not  necessary  to  convey  the  mean- 
ing; as,  "  Who  did  this  ?"     I  [did  it] 

2.  Pleonasm  is  the  introduction  of  superfluous  words.  This  figure 
is  allowable  only,  when  in  animated  discourse,  it  abruptly  intro- 
duces an  emphatic  word,  or  repeats  an  idea  to  impress  it  more 
strongly ;  as,  "  He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear !" — "  I  know 
thee  who  thou  art."  A  pleonasm  is  sometimes  impressive  and  ele- 
gant ;  but  an  unemphatic  repetition  of  the  same  idea,  is  one  of  the 
worst  faults  of  bad  writing. 

3.  Syllepsis  is  agreement  formed  according  to  the  figurative  sense 
of  a  word,  or  the  mental  conception  of  the  thing  spoken  of,  and  not 
according  to  the  literal  or  common  use  of  the  term ;  it  is  therefore, 
in  general,  connected  with  some  figure  of  rhetoric :  as,  "  The  Word 
was  made  flesh,  and  dwelt  among  us,  and  we  beheld  his  glory." — 
John  i.  14.  "  Then  Philip  went  down  to  the  city  of  Samaria,  and 
preached  Christ  unto  them.''1 — Acts  viii.  5.  "  While  Evening  draws 
her  crimson  curtain  round." 

4.  Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech,  or  of  one  modifica- 
tion for  an  other.  This  figure  borders  closely  upon  solecism.*  It  is 
a  license  sparingly  indulged  in  poetry,  and  fashion  has  given  it  at 
least  one  form  in  prose ;  as, 

"  You  know  that  you  are  Brutus  that  say  this." — Shak. 
"  They  fall  successive  [ly,]  and  successive  [ly]  rise." 
"  Than  whom  [who]  none  higher  sat." — Milton, 
"  So  furious  was  that  onset's  shock, 
Destruction's  gate  at  once  unlock." — Hogg. 

5  Hyperbaton  is  the  transposition  of  words ;  as,  "  He  wanders 
earth  around," — "Rings  the  world  with  the  vain  stir."  This  figure 
is  much  employed  in  poetry.  A  judicious  use  of  it  confers  harmony, 
variety,  strength,  and  vivacity,  upon  composition.  But  care  should 
be  taken  lest  it  produce  ambiguity  or  obscurity. 

FIGURES    OF    RHETORIC. 

A  figure  of  Rhetoric,  is  an  intentional  devia- 
tion from  the  ordinary  application  of  words. 

Numerous  departures  from  perfect  simplicity  of  diction  occur  in 
almost  every  kind  of  composition.     They  are  mostly  founded  on 

*  Deviations  of  this  kind  are,  in  general,  to  be  considered  solecisms  ;  otherwise  the 
rules  of  grammar  would  be  of  no  use  or  authority.  Despauter,  an  ancient  Latin  gram- 
marian, gave  an  improper  latitude  to  this  figure,  under  the  name  of  Antiptosis ;  and 
Behourt  and  others  extended  it  still  further.     But  Sanctiv-  Antiplosi  grammaii- 

coram  nihil  imperiiius,  quod  fi  ginentum  si  esset  verum,fru  areretur,  quern  casum 

verba  regercnt.  And  the  Messieurs  De  Port.  Royal  reject  Ugture  altogether.  There 
arc,  however,  Borne  changes  of  this  kind,  which  the  grammarian  is  not  competent  to 
condemn,  though  they  do  not  accord  with  the  ordinary  principles  of  construction. 

9 


98  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

some  similitude  or  relation  of  things,  which,  by  the  power  of  imagi* 
nation,  is  rendered  conducive  to  ornament  or  illustration. 

The  principal  figures  of  Rhetoric  are  fourteen,  namely,  Sim-i-le, 
Me-ta-phor,  Al-le-go-ry,  Me-ton-y-my,  Sy-nec-do-che,  Hy-per-bo-le, 
Vis-ion,  A-pos-tro-phe,  Per-son-i-ji-ca-tion,  Er-o-te-sis,  Ec-pho-ne-sis, 
An-tith-e-sis,  Cli-max,  and  I-ro-ny. 

1.  A  Simile  is  a  simple  and  express  comparison,  and  is  generally 
introduced  by  like,  as,  or  so;  as, 

"  At  first,  like  thunder's  distant  tone, 
The  rattling  din  came  rolling  on." — Hogg. 

2.  A  Metaphor  is  a  figure  that  expresses  the  resemblance  of  two 
objects,  by  applying  either  the  name,  or  some  attribute,  adjunct,  or 
action,  of  the  one,  directly  to  the  other ;  as, 

u His  eye  was  morning' 's  brightest  ray" — Hogg. 
"  Beside  him  sleeps  the  warrior's  bow." — Id. 

3.  An  Allegory  is  a  continued  narration  of  fictitious  events  de- 
signed to  represent  and  illustrate  important  realities.  Thus  the 
Psalmist  represents  the  Jewish  nation  under  the  symbol  of  a  vine: 
u  Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt :  thou  hast  cast  out  the 
heathen  and  planted  it.  Thou  preparedst  room  before  it,  and  didst 
cause  it  to  take  deep  root ;  and  it  filled  the  land.  The  hills  were 
covered  with  the  shadow  of  it,  and  the  boughs  thereof  were  like  the 
goodly  cedars." — Ps.  lxxx.  8. 

4.  A  Metonymy  is  a  change  of  names.  It  is  founded  on  some  such 
relation  as  that  of  cause  and  effect,  of  subject  and  adjunct,  of  place  and 
inhabitant,  of  container  and  thing  contained,  or  of  sign  and  thing  sig- 
nified  ;  as,  "God  is  our  salvation;'"  i.  e.  Saviour. — "He  was  the 
sigh  of  her  secret  soul ;"  i.  e.  the  youth  she  loved. — "  They  smote 
the  city;"  i.  e.  citizens.  "My  son,  give  me  thy  heart;"  i.  e.  affec- 
tion.— "  The  sceptre  shall  not  depart  from  Judah  j"  i.  e.  kingly  power, 

5.  Synecdoche  is  the  naming  of  the  whole  for  a  part,  or  of  a  part 
for  the  whole  ;  as,  "  This  roof  [i.  e.  house]  protects  you." — "  Now 
the  year  [i.  e.  summer]  is  beautiful." — Thomson. 

6.  Hyperbole  is  extravagant  exaggeration,  in  which  the  imagina- 
tion is  indulged  beyond  the  sobriety  of  truth ;  as, 

"  The  sky  shrunk  upward  with  unusual  dread, 
And  trembling  Tiber  div'd  beneath  his  bed." — Dryden 

7.  Vision  or  Imagery,  is-<a  figure  by  which  the  spe  \ker  represents 
the  objects  of  his  imagination,  as  actually  before  his  eyes  and  pres- 
ent to  his  senses ;  as, 

"  Andromache — thy  griefs  I  dread ; 
I  see  thee  trembling,  weeping,  captive  led." — Pope. 

8.  Apostrophe  is  a  turning  from  the  regular  course  of  the  subject, 
into  an  animated  address ;  as,  il  Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory. 

0  Death    where  is  thy  sting  ?  O  Grave !  where  is  thy  victory  ?" — 

1  Cor.  xv.  54. 

9.  Personification  is  a  figure  by  which,  in  imagination,  we  ascribe 
intelligence  and  personality  to  unintelligent  beings  or  abstract  qual- 
ilics;  as, 


PROSODY.  99 

"  Lo,  steel-clad  War  his  gorgeous  standard  rears !" — Rogers. 
"  Hark !  Truth  proclaims  thy  triumphs  cease !" — Id. 

10.  Erotesis  is  a  figure  in  which  the  speaker  adopts  the  form  of 
interrogation,  not  to  express  a  doubt,  but  in  general  confidently  to 
assert  the  reverse  of  what  is  asked ;  as,  "  Hast  thou  an  arm  like 
God  ?  or  canst  thou  thunder  with  a  voice  like  him  ?" — Job,  xl.  9. 

11.  Ecphonesis  is  a  pathetic  exclamation,  denoting  some  violent 
emotion  of  the  mind  ;  as,  "  O  Liberty  !  O  sound  once  delightful  to 
every  Roman  ear !  O  sacred  privilege  of  Roman  citizenship ! — once 
sacred — now  trampled  upon !" — Cicero. 

12.  Antithesis  is  a  placing  of  things  in  opposition  to  heighten  their 
effect  by  contrast ;  as, 

"  Contrasted  faults  through  all  their  manners  reign ; 
Though  poor,  luxurious  ;  though  submissive,  vain  ; 
Though  grave,  yet  trifling  ;  zealous,  yet  untrue  ; 
And,  e'en  in  penance,  planning  sins  anew." — Goldsmith. 

13.  Climate  is  a  figure  in  which  the  sense  is  made  to  advance  by 
successive  steps,  to  rise  gradually  to  what  is  more  and  more  im- 
portant and  interesting,  or  to  descend  to  what  is  more  and  more 
minute  and  particular ;  as,  "  Tribulation  worketh  patience  j  and 
patience,  experience ;  and  experience,  hope." — Rom.  v.  3. 

14.  Irony  is  a  figure  in  which  the  speaker  sneeringly  utters  the 
direct  reverse  of  what  he  intends  shall  be  understood ;  as,  "  We 
have,  to  be  sure,  great  reason  to  believe  the  modest  man  would  not 
ask  him  for  a  debt,  when  he  pursues  his  life." — Cicero. 


VERSIFICATION. 


Versification  is  the  art  of  arranging  words  into 
lines  of  correspondent  length,  so  as  to  produce 
harmony  by  the  regular  alternation  of  syllables 
differing  in  quantity. 

The  Quantity  of  a  syllable,  is  the  relative  portion  of  time  occu- 
pied in  uttering  it.  In  poetry,  every  syllable  is  considered  to  be 
either  long  or  short.  A  long  syllable  is  reckoned  to  be  equal  to 
two  short  ones. 

Obs.  1.  The  quantity  of  a  syllable  does  not  depend  on  the  sound 
af  the  vowel  or  diphthong,  but  principally,  on  the  degree  of  accent- 
ual force  with  which  the  syllable  is  uttered,  whereby  a  greater  or 
less  portion  of  time  is  employed.  The  open  vowel  sounds  are  those 
which  are  the  most  easily  protracted,  yet  they  often  occur  in  the 
shortest  and  feeblest  syllables. 

Obs.  2.  Mos4  monosyllables  are  variabley  and  may  be  made  either 
long  or  shor"..  sm  suits  the  rhythm.    In  words  of  greater  length,  the 


100  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

accented  syllable  is  always  long ;  and  a  syllable  immediately  before 
or  after  that  which  is  accented,  is  always  short. 

Rhyme  is  a  similarity  of  sound,  between  the  last  syllables  of  dif- 
ferent lines.   Blank  verse  is  verse  without  rhyme. 

Obs.  The  principal  rhyming  syllables  are  always  long.  Double 
rhyme  adds  one  short  syllable ;  triple  rhyme,  two.  Such  syllables 
are  redundant  in  iambic  and  anapaestic  verses. 

POETIC  FEET. 

A  line  of  poetry  consists  of  successive  combinations  of  syllables, 
called  feet. 

A  poetic  foot  consists  either  of  two  or  of  three  syllables. 

The  principal  English  feet  are  the  Iambus,  the  Trochee,  the  Ana- 
pcest,  and  the  Dactyl. 

1.  The  Iambus  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  a  short  syllable  and  a 
long  one ;  as,  betray,  confess. 

2.  The  Trochee  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  a  long  syllable  and  a 
short  one ;  as,  hateful,  pettish. 

3.  The  Anapaest  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  two  short  syllables 
and  one  long  one ;  as,  contravene,  acquiesce. 

4.  The  Dactyl  is  a  poetic  foot  consisting  of  one  long  syllable  and 
two  short  ones ;  as,  labourer,  possible. 

We  have,  accordingly,  four  kinds  of  verse,  or  poetic  measure; 
Iambic,  Trochaic,  Anapaestic,  and  Dactylic. 

SCANNING. 

Scanning  is  the  dividing  of  verses  into  the  feet  which  compose 
them. 

I.  In  Iambic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  even  syllable. 

EXAMPLES. 

For  praise  |  too  dear|ly  lov'd  |  or  warm|ly  s5ught, 
Enfet  |bles  all  |  inter |nal  strength  |  of  thought. 
With  sol|emn  ad|6ra|tion  down  I  they  cast 
Their  crowns  |  inwove  j  with  amjarant  |  and  gold. 

II.  In  Trochaic  verse,  the  Stress  is  laid  on  the  odd  syllables.  Sin 
gle-rhymed  trochaic  omits  the  final  short  syllable,  that  it  may  end 
with  a  long  one.  This  kind  of  verse  is  the  same  as  iambic  without 
the  initial  short  syllable. 

EXAMPLES. 

Round  a  |  holy  |  calm  dif  [fusing, 
Love  of  |  peace  and  |  lonely  |  musing. 

Single  Rhyme. 
Restless  |  mortals  |  toil  for  |  naught; 
Biiss  in  |  vain  from  |  earth  is  |  sought 

III.  In  Anapeestic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  every  third  syllable. 
The  first  foot  of  an  anapaestic  line,  may  be  an  iambus. 


PROSODY.  101 

EXAMPLES. 

At  the  close  I  of  the  day — when  the  ham  |  let  is  still, 
And  mor|taIs  the  sweets — of  forget]  fulness  prove, 
When  nought  |  but  the  tor |  rent  is  heard  |  on  the  hill, 
And  nought  |  but  the  night |ingale's  song  |  in  the  grove. 
IV.  In  Dactylic  verse,  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  first,  the  fourth, 
the  seventh,  and  the  tenth  syllable.    Full  Dactylic  forms  triple 
rhyme,.     When  one  of  the  final  short  syllables  is  omitted,  the  rhyme 
is  doubie :  when  both,  single.     Dactylic  with  single  rhyme,  is  the 
same  as  anapaestic  without  its  initial  short  syllables.    Dactylic  mea- 
sure is  rather  uncommon ;  and,  when  employed,  is  seldom  perfectly 
regular. 

EXAMPLES. 

Holy  and  I  pure  are  the  |  pleasures  of  |  piety, 

Drawn  irom  the  |  fountain  of  |  mercy  and  |  l5ve ; 
Endless,  ex|haustless,  exjempt  from  sa|tiety, 
Rising  un |  earthly  and  |  soaring  ajbove. 
Obs.  The  more  pure  these  several  kinds  of  poetic  measure  are 
preserved,  the  more  complete  is  the  chime  of  the  verse.    But,  to 
avoid  disagreeable  monotony,  the  poets  generally  indulge  some  va- 
riety; not  so  much,  however,  as  to  confound  the  drift  of  the  rhyth- 
mical pulsations. 


QUESTIONS  ON  PROSODY. 

LESSON   I. — PUNCTUATION. 

Of  what  does  Prosody  treat  ? 

What  is  Punctuation? 

What  are  the  principal  points  or  marks  ? 

What  is  the  proportion  of  the  pauses  denoted  by  the  comma,  the 

semicolon,  the  colon,  and  the  period  ? 
What  pauses  are  required  by  the  other  four? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  comma? — of  the  semicolon  ?— of  the  colon? 

of  the  period  ?— of  the  dash  ?— of  the  note  of  interrogation  ? — of 

the  note  of  exclamation  ? — of  the  parenthesis  ? 

LESSON   II. — OTHER   MARKS. 

Are  there  any  other  marks  used  in  printing? 
What  does  the  apostrophe  denote? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  hyphen  ? 
How  is  the  diaeresis  employed  ? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  acute  accent  ? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  grave  accent  ? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  circumflex? 
For  what  purpose  is  the  breve  employed  ? 
For  what  purpose  is  the  macron  employed  1 
What  does  the  ellipsis  denote  ? 
9# 


102  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

What  does  the  caret  show? 

What  is  the  use  of  the  brace  ? 

What  does  the  section  mark  ? 

What  does  the  paragraph  denote  ? 

How  is  a  new  subject  generally  distinguished  ? 

What  do  the  quotation  points  denote? 

What  is  the  use  of  the  crotchets  ? 

What  does  the  index  point  out  ? 

To  what  do  the  asterisk,  obelisk,  dagger,  and  parallel,  refer  ? 

LESSON    III. UTTERANCE. 

What  is  utterance?  arid  what  does  it  include? 
What  is  pronunciation  ? — What  does  it  require  ? 
What  are  the  just  powers  of  the  letters? 
What  is  accent  ? — Is  every  word  accented  ? 
What  four  things  distinguish  the  elegant  speaker  ? 
What  is  elocution  ? — What  does  elocution  require  ? 
What  is  emphasis  ? — What  are  pauses  ? — inflections  ? 
What  is  the  rising  inflection  ? — the  falling  inflection  ? 

How  are  these  inflections  applied  in  asking  questions  ? 

What  are  tones  ? 

LESSON   IV. — FIGURES. 

WTiat  is  a  figure  in  grammar  ? 

How  many  kinds  of  figures  are  there? 

What  is  a  figure  of  etymology  ? 

What  are  the  principal  figures  of  etymology? 

What  is  aphaeresis  ? — prosthesis  ? — syncope  ? — apocope  ? — pamgo 

ge  ? — diaeresis  ? — synaeresis — tmesis  ? 
What  is  a  figure  of  syntax  ? 
What  are  the  principal  figures  of  syntax  ? 
What  is  ellipsis? — pleonasm? — syllepsis? — enallage? — hyperbuon? 

LESSON  V. — FIGURES. 

What  is  a  figure  of  rhetoric  ? 

On  what  are  the  figures  of  rhetoric  founded  ? 

What  are  the  principal  figures  of  rhetoric  ? 

What  is  a  simile? — a  metaphor? — an  allegory? — metonymv**— 
synecdoche  ? — hyperbole  ? — vision  ? — apostrophe  ? — persoiH#TV 
tion  ? — erotesis  ? — ecphonesis  ? — antithesis  ? — climax  ? — irony  1 

LESSON  VI. — VERSIFICATION. 
What  is  VERSIFICATION  ? 

What  is  quantity  ? — rhyme  ? — blank  verse  ? — scanning  ? 
Of  what  does  a  line  of  poetry  consist? 
'  What  are  the  principal  English  feet  ? 
What  is  an  iambus  ? — a  trochee  ? — an  anapaest  ? — a  dactyl  ? 
How  many  kinds  of  verse  are  there  ? 

What  syllables  are  accented  in  iambic  verse? — in  trochaic  verml- 
in  anapaestic  verse? — in  dactylic  verse? 

THE    END  OF  PART   FOURTH. 


APPENDIX 


EXAMPLES  OF  FALSE  SYNTAX. 
To  be  corrected  orally  according  to  the  fbrmules  here  given. 

UNDER    RULE    II. 

Thee  must  have  been  idle. 

SNot  proper,  because  the  pronoun  thee  is  in  the  objective  casey 
is  the  subject  of  the  verb  must  liave  been.  But,  according  to 
Rule  2d,  "  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  verb, 
must  be  in  the  nominative  case."  Therefore,  thee  should  be  thou  . 
thus,  Thou  must  have  been  idle.] 

Him  that  loiters  by  the  way,  may  be  belated.  % 

Them  that  labour,  should  be  rewarded. 

Us  who  are  spared  ought  to  be  thankful. 

You  and  me  are  equally  concerned. 

Are  not  thee  and  him  related  1 

My  brother  is  older  than  me. 

He  cannot  read  so  well  as  thee. 

Who  fastened  the  door  ?    Me. 

Whom  do  you  suppose  did  it  ? 

UNDER   RULE   III. 

I  have  heard  from  my  cousin,  she  that  was  here  last  week. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  she  is  in  the  nominative  case, 
and  is  used  to  explain  the  noun  cousin  which  is  in  the  objective  case. 
But,  according  to  Rule  3d,  "  A  noun  or  a  personal  pronoun,  used 
to  explain  a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put,  by  apposition,  in  the 
same  case."  Therefore,  she  should  be  her  ;  thus,  I  have  heard  from 
my  cousin,  her  that  was  here  last  week.] 

That  was  the  tailoress,  her  that  made  my  clothes. 
I  saw  your  friend,  he  that  was  here  last  winter. 
Dennis,  the  gardener,  him  that  gave  me  the  tulips,  has  promisea 
me  a  piony. 

UNDER   RULE    V. 

Ought  not  every  man  to  be  careful  of  their  reputation  ? 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  their  is  of  the  plural  numbei, 
and  does  not  correctly  represent  its  antecedent  noun  man,  which  U 
of  the  third  person,  singular,  masculine.  But  according  to  Rule  5th 


104  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

6  A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  or  the  nfwi  ^r  pro- 
noun which  it  represents,  in  person,  number,  and  gender.''  There- 
fore, their  should  be  his;  thus,  Ought  not  every  man  to  be  careful 
of  his  reputation  ?] 

Every  one  must  judge  of  their  own  feelings. — Byron. 

We  may  be  displeased  with  a  person  without  hating  them. 

I  poured  water  on  the  embers  to  quench  it. 

Ask  her  for  the  scissors,  and  bring  it  to  me. 

He  had  sown  the  oats,  and  it  had  already  sprung  up. 

UNDER   RULE    VI. 

The  jury  will  be  confined  until  it  agrees  on  a  verdict 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  it  is  of  the  singular  number, 
and  does  not  correctly  represent  its  antecedent  jury,  which  is  a  col- 
lective noun  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality.  But,  according  to  Rule 
6th,  "  When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea 
of  plurality,  the  pronoun  must  agree  with  it,  in  the  plural  number." 
Therefore,  it  should  be  they ;  thus,  The  jury  will  be  confined  untiJ 
they  agree  on  a  verdict] 

The  people  will  not  relinquish  its  rights. 

The  clergy  had  declared  its  intention. 

The  party  disagreed  among  itself. 

The  committee  were  unanimous,  and  this  is  its  award. 

The  company  then  renewed  its  claims. 

UNDER   RULE    VII. 

Discontent  and  sorrow  manifested  itself  in  his  countenance. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  itself  is  of  the  singular  num 
ber,  and  does  not  correctly  represent  its  two  antecedents,  discontent 
and  sorrow,  which  are  connected  by  and,  and  taken  conjointly.  But, 
according  to  Rule  7th,  "  When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  antece- 
dents connected  by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural  num- 
ber." Therefore  itself  should  be  themselves ;  Thus,  Discontent  and 
sorrow  manifested  themselves  in  his  countenance.] 

Avoid  lightness  and  frivolity  :  it  is  allied  to  folly. 
Truth  and  honesty  cannot  Xa.il  of  its  reward. 
Learning  and  good  sense  always  adorn  its  possessoi 
Banish  envy  and  strife :  it  will  destroy  your  peace. 
Cherish  love  and  unity :  it  is  the  life  cf  society. 

UNDER   RULE    VIII. 

Neither  wealth  nor  honour  can  satisfy  their  votaries. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  their  is  of  the  plural  number, 
and  does  not  correctly  represent  its  two  antecedents  wealth  and  ho- 
nour, which  are  connected  by  nor,  and  taken  disjunctively.  But  ac- 
cording to  Rule  8th,  "  When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  singular 
antecedents  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the 


APPENDIX.  105 

singular  number."    Therefore,  their  shoula  oe  its ;  thus,  Neither 
wealth  nor  honour  can  satisfy  its  votaries.] 

Can  justice  or  truth  change  their  nature? 

One  or  the  other  must  relinquish  their  claim. 

Neither  the  lion  nor  the  tiger  will  bow  their  neck  to  thee. 

The  horse  or  the  ox  will  lend  thee  their  strength. 

Neither  my  father  nor  my  master  would  give  their  consent. 

UNDER    RULE    IX. 

You  was  kindly  received. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  verb  wets  received  is  of  the  singular 
number,  and  does  not  agree  with  its  nominative  you,  which  is  plu- 
ral. But  according  to  Rule  9th,  "  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  sub- 
ject, or  nominative,  in  person  and  number."  Therefore,  was  received 
should  be  were  received:  thus,  You  were  kindly  receivedJ] 

Appearances  is  often  deceptive. 

The  propriety  of  such  restrictions  are  doubtful. 

There  is  windows  on  three  sides  of  the  room. 

Thou  sees  the  difficulties  with  which  I  am  surrounded. 

What  does  all  my  exertions  avail. 

UNDER    RULE    X. 

The  people  rejoices  in  that  which  should  cause  sorrow. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  verb  rejoices  is  of  the  singular  number 
and  does  not  correctly  agree  with  the  nominative  people,  which  is  a 
collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality.  But  according  to 
Rule  10th,  "  When  the  nominative  is  a  collective  noun  conveying 
the  idea  of  plurality,  the  verb  must  agree  with  it  in  the  plural  num- 
ber." Therefore,  rejoices  should  be  rejoice :  thus,  The  people  rejoice 
Ji  that  which  should  cause  sorrow.] 

The  nobility  was  assured  that  he  would  not  interpose. 
The  committee  has  attended  to  their  appointment. 
The  majority  was  disposed  to  adopt  the  measure. 
All  the  world  is  spectators  of  your  conduct. 
Blessed  is  the  people  that  know  the  joyful  sound. — Bible. 

UNDER   RULE   XI. 

Industry  and  frugality  leads  to  wealth. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  verb  leads  is  of  the  singular  number 
and  does  not  correctly  agree  with  its  two  nominatives,  industry  ana 
frugality,  which  are  connected  by  and,  and  taken  conjointly.  But, 
according  to  Rule  11th,  "When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  nomina- 
tives connected  by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural  num- 
ber." Therefore,  leads  should  be  lead :  thus,  Industry  and  frugality 
lead  to  wealth.] 

Temperance  and  exercise  preserves  health. 

My  love  and  affection  towards  thee  remains  unaltered. 


106 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Wealth,  honour,  and  happiness,  forsakes  the  indolent. 

My  flesh  and  my  heart  faileth. — Bible. 

In  all  his  works,  there  is  sprightliness  anil  vigour. 

UNDER    RULE    XII. 

Ignorance  or  negligence  have  caused  this  mistake 

[Not  proper,  because  the  verb  have  caused  is  of  the  plural  num- 
ber, and  does  not  correctly  agree  with  its  two  nominatives,  igno- 
rance and  negligence,  which  are  connected  by  0$,  and  taken  disjunc- 
tively. But,  according  to  Rule  12th,  "  When  a  verb  has  two  or 
more  singular  nominatives  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree 
with  them  in  the  singular  number."  Therefore,  have  caused  should 
be  hascaused:  thus,  Ignoranceor  negligence  has  caused  this  mistake.] 

No  axe  or  hammer  have  ever  awakened  an  echo  here. 
What  the  heart  or  imagination  dictate,  flows  readily. 
Neither  authority  no'  analogy  support  thy  opinion. 
Either  ability  or  inclination  were  wanting. 
He  comes — nor  want  nor  cold  his  course  delay. — Johnson. 

UNDER    RULE   XIII. 

They  would  neither  go  in,  nor  suffered  others  to  enter. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  verb  suffered,  which  is  in  the  indicative 
mood,  is  connected,  without  repetition  of  the  nominative,  to  would  go, 
which  is  in  the  potential  mood.  But,  accordiug  to  Rule  13th, 
"When  verbs  are  connected  by  a  conjunction,  they  must  either 
agree  in  mood,  tense,  and  form,  or  have  separate  nominatives  ex- 
pressed." Therefore,  suffered  should  be  would  suffer ;  (woiddunder- 
stood ;)  thus,  They  would  neither  go  in,  nor  suffer  others  to  enter.] 

Does  not  he  waste  his  time,  and  neglects  his  lessons  ? 

Did  not  she  send,  and  gave  you  this  information  ? 

Their  honours  are  departing  and  come  to  an  end. 

He  had  retired  to  his  farm,  and  appeared  to  be  happy  there 

He  was  elected  to  the  office,  but  would  not  serve. 

UNDER    RULE    XX. 

She  I  shall  more  readily  forgive. 

"Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  she  is  in  the  nominative  case 
ana  is  ihe  object  of  the  active-transitive  verb  shall  forgive.  But,  ac 
cording  to  Rule  20th,  "  Active-transitive  verbs,  and  their  imperfect 
and  pluperfect  participles,  govern  the  objective  case."  Therefore, 
she  should  be  her:  thus,  Her  I  shall  more  readily  forgive.] 

Thou  only  have  I  chosen. 

Who  shall  we  send  on  this  errand  ? 

My  father  allowed  my  brother  and  I  to  accompany  him 

He  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply. 

Who  should  I  meet  but  my  old  friend  ! 


APPENDIX.  107 

UNDER    RULE    XXI. 

We  did  not  know  that  it  was  him. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  him,  which  follows  the  neuter 
verb  was,  is  in  the  objective  case,  and  does  not  agree  with  the  pro- 
noun it j  which  precedes  the  verb,  in  the  nominative;  both  words 
referring  to  the  same  thing.  But,  according  to  Rule  21st,  "  Active- 
int/.ansitive,  passive,  and  neuter  verbs,  take  the  same  case  after  as 
before  them,  when  both  words  refer  to  the  same  thing."  Therefore, 
fdm  sh©uld  be  he :  thus,  We  did  not  know  that  it  was  he.} 

We  thought  it  was  thee. 

I  would  act  the  same  part,  if  I  were  him. 

It  could  not  have  been  her. 

It  is  not  me  that  he  is  angry  with. 

They  believed  it  to  be  I. 

UNDER    RULE    XXII. 

It  rests  with  thou  and  me  to  decide. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  thou  is  in  the  nominative  case, 
and  is  governed  by  the  preposition  with.  But,  according  to  Rule  22d, 
"  Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case."  Therefore,  thou  should 
be  thee :  thus,  It  rests  with  thee  and  me  to  decide.] 

Let  that  remain  a  secret  between  you  and  I. 
I  lent  the  book  to  some  one,  I  know  not  who. 
Let  no  quarrel  occur  among  ye. 
Who  did  he  inquire  for  ?    Thou. 

UNDER   RULE    XXIII. 

Ought  these  things  be  tolerated  ? 

[Not  proper,  because  the  infinitive  be  tolerated,  is  not  preceded  by 
the  preposition  to.  But,  according  to  Rule  23d,  "  The  preposition 
to  governs  the  infinitive  mood,  and  commonly  connects  :t  to  a  finite 
verb."  To  should  be  inserted :  thus,  Ought  these  things  to  be  tol- 
erated ?"] 

Please  excuse  my  son's  absence. 
Cause  every  man  go  out  from  me. 
Forbid  them  enter  the  garden. 
Do  you  not  perceive  it  move  ? 
Allow  others  discover  your  merit. 
He  was  seen  go  in  at  that  gate. 

UNDER    RULE   XXIV. 

They  need  not  to  call  upon  her. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  preposition  *o  is  inserted  before  cail^ 
vhich  follows  the  active  verb  netd.     But,  according  to  Rule  24tl^ 


108  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

"  The  active  verbs  bid,  dare,  feel,  liear,  let,  ma  ?  vetd,  see,  and 
their  participles,  take  the  infinitive  after  them,  wituout  the  preposi- 
tion to."  Therefore,  to  should  be  omitted :  thus,  They  need  not  call 
upon  her.] 

I  felt  a  chilling  sensation  to  creep  over  me. 
I  have  heard  him  to  mention  the  subject. 
Bid  the  boys  to  come  in  immediately. 
I  dare  to  say  he  has  not  got  home  yet. 
Let  no  rash  promise  to  be  made. 

UNDER   RULE    XXV. 

Him  having  ended  his  discourse,  the  assembly  dispersed. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  pronoun  him,  whose  case  depends  on  no 
other  word,  is  in  the  objective  case.  But,  according  to  Rule  25tb, 
"  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  put  absolute  in  the  nominative,  when  itB 
case  depends  on  no  other  word."  Therefore,  him  should  be  he  • 
IhUs,  He  having  ended  his  discourse,  the  assembly  dispersed."] 

Me  being  young,  they  deceived  me. 

Them  refusing  to  comply,  I  withdrew. 

The  child  is  lost ;  and  me,  whither  shall  I  go  1 

Thee  being  present,  he  would  not  tell  what  he  knew. 

Arise,  and  gird  thyself,  O  thee  that  sleepest ! 

0  wretched  us !  shut  from  the  light  of  hope  ! 

"  Thee  too !  Brutus,  my  son  !"  cried  Caesar  overcome 
But  him,  the  chieftain  of  them  all, 
His  sword  hangs  rusting  on  the  wall. 

UNDER   RULE   XXVI. 

He  will  not  be  pardoned,  unless  he  repents. 

[Not  proper,  because  the  verb  repents,  which  is  used  to  express  a 
future  contingency,  is  in  the  indicative  mood.  But,  according  to 
Rule  26th,  "  A  future  contingency  is  best  expressed  by  a  verb  in 
the  subjunctive,  present."  Therefore,  repents  should  be  repent: 
dius,  He  will  not  be  pardoned  unless  he  repent.'] 

1  shall  walk  out  m  the  afternoon,  unless  it  rains. 
If  thou  feltest  as  I  do,  we  should  soon  decide. 

I  knew  thou  wert  not  slow  to  hear. 

Let  him  take  heed  lest  he  falls. 

If  thou  castestme  off,  I  shall  be  miserable. 

I  believed,  whatever  was  the  issue,  all  would  be  well. 

If  he  was  an  impostor,  he  must  have  been  detected. 


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LINES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

br  learners. 

;     {S'J'ITUTES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

SSCS. 

o  i..i   :;ry  for  Teachers,  (Phillips'  Academy,}  ) 
Andovkb,  Mass.,  March  16,  I6i',i.  $ 
The'''  Engnsh  Grammar,"  by  Goold  Br 

one  of  tho  U  si  books  of  ihis  in.-tinition.     For  the  use  of 
Acad  he  higher  classes  in  Common  Schools, 

n,  superior  lo  any  oilier  Grammar  now 
;c  the  public.  WILLIAM  II.  WELLS, 

Lnstr.  Eng.  Dept. 

-  YORK  READER  Ko.  I. 

-YORK  READER,  No.  2. 

YORK -READER    No.  3. 

o  Readers  .  -v  d^sc. -redly  popular ;  the  lessons  ara 
progressive,  strict*)  ...oral,  and  instructive, 

:G  CHILD'S  A.  B,  C,  OR  FIRST  BOOK. 
NEW-YORK  PRHi Fit,  OR  SECOND  BOOK. 
NEW   rORK  &SKCKPTOR,  OR  THIRD  B001L 

NEW-YORK  SPLLLINC-LOOK,  OR  FOURTH  BOOK. 

Their  me.  The  progression  from  book 

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;  l'l  CHILL,  LL.D.F.R.S.&c 


NEW- YORK  EXPOSITOR,  OR  Flimi  BOOK. 

A'his  is  a  selection  of  the  most  useful  words  in  the  language, 
their  definitions;  and  is  better  adapted  for  general 
f    use,  than  most  Dictionaries  extant. 

SCHOLAR'S  MANUAL,  containing  flic  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence, lite  Constiiuticn  of  the  United  States,  and 
Wo  urewoll  Address,  with  questions. 

^GRAPHICAL  EXERCISES 


